Introduction

Nomads are among the sub-communities that have their self social and economic characteristics. Nomads depend on livestock to provide their necessities and for this reason they play a provital role in the national development of countries (Ali, 2019). The social structure based on patrilineal hierarchy, reliance of livelihood on mobile livestock farming and nomadic way of life are the characteristics of the nomadic society (Ahmadi & Rabbani, 2021). Considering the economic and special cultural conditions of the nomadic areas, their education needs special attention (Adeniyi-Egbeola, 2018). Education of nomads is a gateway to improve the quality of life and increase economic, political & social opportunities; promotes stability and peace; reduces poverty; causes sustainable growth; and leads to better health, especially for nomadic women and children (Brossard, 2021). The curriculum of nomadic schools includes learning activities designed for students in order to obtain the desired knowledge and skills that enable them to improve living conditions and necessary abilities to increase the level of income and productivity (Ohanu, Salawu & Ede, 2021).

However, the studies by Iranian and international researchers shows that providing education to nomadic communities in the world is still one of the most challenging concerns faced by practitioners and activists in the field of education (Kiminza, Ogula & Getui, 2021). Raymond (2021) believes that in most countries with nomadic population, alternative primary education that can appreciate the cultural values ​​of nomadic society with a flexible curriculum have not been accepted. For this reason, nomadic groups suffer from severe educational deprivation (UNESCO, 2010). Even after years of international laws such as "Education for All" (EFA) have been approved by UNESCO, UNICEF and the United Nations, nomadic groups are mostly absent from educational policies and services (Baughn, 2018). Therefore, the educational needs of nomads are not provided by traditional school systems and in particular, curricula do not match their lifestyles (UNESCO, 2018). In nomadic areas, the availability of a high quality school cannot be taken for granted (Carr Hill, 2005). Harsh physical conditions, insecurity, low population density, problems related to attracting and retaining students and teachers, and the professional quality of teachers are common problems in nomadic education (Bangsbo, 2008). In African countries such as Nigeria, the nomadic lifestyle, constant migration in search of water and pasture, lack of connection between formal school curriculum and interests & challenges of real life, and climatic obstacles are among other challenges of children of nomadic families for participation in formal and informal curriculum (Usman, 2017). Nomadic students are completely unable to access formal education due to the low quality of education and curriculum mostly unrelated to their real needs and social, cultural & economic development (Ngugi, 2016). Fareo & Ateegu (2020) indicated that in Nigeria tribal culture encourages early marriage of female students, which causes them to drop out of school. Osokoya& et al (2010) evaluated the educational program of the nomads in Nigeria and determined that the nomadic education is relatively successful because the beneficiaries (nomads) consider these programs as a great success in providing relevant and practical basic education with a positive impact on these communities. Olaniran (2018) concluded that despite the many benefits of nomads to the Nigerian economy, they are very poor in terms of access to education.

In the structure of Iran's centralized educational system, students of the nomadic sociaty - like urban and rural students - are forced to receive and learn formal curricula (Safi, 2014). Iranian researchers’ studies show that the quantity and quality of education of nomadic elementary students is not very satisfactory. For example, Azimi Aqbalag, Tahmasabzadeh Sheikhlar, Mahmoudi, & Taghipour (2022) found that the upstream documents have supported the education of nomads, but so far the set goals have not been implemented well and there is a long way to achieve educational justice. Farmahini Farahani, Madani, & Azimi Aqbalag (2021) categorized the challenges of nomadic education into three main themes: Ecological, motivational and curriculum. Ecological challenges include matters such as early marriage, frequent absences from class, teachers' insistence on using punishment, education being limited to the primary education, bilingualism and use of students as labor. Motivational challenges include lack of interest in continuing education, school as a place of entertainment, dropping out of school and limiting learning to school. Also, curriculum challenges include descriptive evaluation, focused curriculum, lack of educational facilities and time limitations.

Mahmoudi, Azimi Aqbalag & Madani (2019) made it clear that despite the emphasis of upstream documents of education on the adaptation of curricula to the context of nomadic life, this goal has not yet been realized. Kalidari (2019) showed that the integrated teaching method is the most effective method of teaching in multi-level classes of nomadic schools and has a positive role in improving the quality of education. Havasizad (2017) considers the lack of educational facilities, academic support, parents’ emphasis on learning, attractiveness of course content, motivation of learners and wasted learning time as the challenges of nomadic education. Heydarzadegan and Sandogdaran (2016) came to the conclusion that educational opportunities are unequal in the nomadic areas of Sistan and Baluchistan province.

Also, Musaei Gole (2016) found that severe lack of time is one of the professional challenges of nomadic school teachers. In addition, under the influence of higher officials of the Organization of Education, the nomadic teachers give unrealistic grades to the nomadic students which have led to their academic failure and insensitivity of parents about students' performance and their dropping out of school. Turani & Arefnejad (2016) reveal that in nomadic schools, cultural, individual, geographic, economic, organizational barriers and teacher recruitment methods play a role as the main barriers. Bastan (2015) found that providing a centralized curriculum to nomadic students has caused their academic decline. Also, carrying out two annual migrations - at the same time as the academic year - reduces the net education time by 34% (55 days out of the 160 net days planned for the child to attend school). The consequence of the annual migration is disruption in the school's curriculum, teachers’ rushed to teach the course material and failure to complete the teaching of all lessons and subjects (Abdoli, 2014).

A review of research literature revealed shortcomings of nomadic education. In order to solve these challenges and provide efficient education, it is necessary to use experiences of countries with nomadic populations. Therefore, the current research aims to answer the following questions:

• What are the similarities and differences between goals and prospects of education in nomadic schools in Iran and Nigeria?
• What are the similarities and differences between curriculum content of nomadic schools in Iran and Nigeria?
• What are the similarities and differences of nomadic education in Iran and Nigeria, in terms of infrastructure and support?

Research Method

 The current research method is a qualitative comparative using Bereday’s approach. Considering the difference between Iran and Nigeria in terms of social systems (history, culture, political, etc.), the strategy of "different social systems, different educational output" was used to select the sample. Documentary method was used to collect data. In this method, the researcher tries to discover, extract, classify and evaluate data by systematically using primary and secondary sources. The primary and secondary sources include books, articles and theses related to the education of nomadic education of primary school students in the two countries of Iran and Nigeria. The selection of sources was done according to the appropriateness of content with research purpose and criteria such as "updatedness", accessibility and availability of full text. The tool was note-taking and relational analysis used to analyze them. This method has six stages: Determining question, determining type of communication, reducing and simplifying text to thematic classes, exploring relationship between concepts and drawing results (Adib Hajj Bagheri, Parvizi, & Salali, 2015). To evaluate the data, external criticism (first-hand documents) and internal criticism (importance and authenticity of documents’ contents) and peer debriefing were referred to.

Findings

First Stage: Description & interpretation

1. A) Special Education for Nomads

1. Iran

As an Asian country, Iran is a multi-national, multi-cultural and multi-lingual land. Due to its size, this country has much ethnic and cultural diversity and there are nomadic populations in about thirty provinces. The formal religion of Iran is Islam, and most nomadic students speak their mother tongue and learn the official language through a centralized formal education system. Education of nomads in Iran has gone through different periods. Undoubtedly, the most golden period is related to the lifetime of "Mohammed Bahman Beigi" nicknamed "Father of Nomadic Education of Iran" (Yousefi, 2018). In 1945, with the publication of the book "Customs and Habits in Nomads", he pointed out the necessity of educating nomads. With the tireless efforts of Bahman Begi, the idea of ​​"localization of nomadic curricula" was implemented in most nomadic schools in the country. Because of these efforts, “Nadezhda Krupskaya Literacy Prize” was given to him by UNESCO in 1973 (Ghorbani, 2017).

After the victory of the Islamic revolution in 1979, the education system of the nomads was faced with changes - such as two times dissolution of the General Administration of Nomadic Education and restarting of the General Administration of Nomadic Education by the government during 1982 to 1999 (Azimi Aqbalag, 2023). Currently, Iran's educational system is centralized and the curriculum of nomadic primary schools - like urban and rural schools - is based on the national curriculum. Also, the trustee of nomadic education in Iran is the "Office for Development of Educational Justice & Nomadic Education" in the Ministry of Education. According to the latest official statistics, 208,448 students study in 6,643 fixed, mobile and semi-mobile nomadic schools, of which 47% are girls. Also, 13971 teachers are responsible for training of nomadic children (Saifi, 2021).

2. Nigeria

As an African country, Nigeria is home to several large nomadic groups. Due to the unstable lifestyle of the nomadic community, they are deprived of education benefits. The sensitivity of the Nigerian government to the plight of the nomadic educational situation led to the approval of the nomadic education program. Nigeria, in recent years as a multi-identity and multicultural country, has been more committed to providing equal educational opportunities for all its citizens - including nomads - (Abdulrahman, 2016). Pastoral nomads - the most populous nomadic group in Nigeria - are predominantly Muslim. These nomads are bilingual and their training is done through a centralized education system.

Given the challenges posed by ongoing migration, the Nigerian government realized that unless a unique educational program was developed to engage the nomads, they would have no opportunity to have equal access to education - both formal and informal. This led to educational mobilization and establishment of the “National Commission for Nomadic Education" by the Federal Government of Nigeria (Olaniran, 2018). On 12 December 1989, this commission approved the Nomadic Education Program. According to this program, nomadic education can be described as a designed and targeted educational activity for nomads and their children. In 2019, there were about four thousand nomadic primary schools in Nigeria (Sasu, 2022) and according to the report of the “National Commission for Nomadic Education” more than 1.1 million students were enrolled in nomadic primary schools in Nigeria in the same year. The majority of these students were girls – 65 percent, approximately 740,000 (Ohanu et al., 2021).

1. b) Objectives & perspectives of nomadic education

1. Iran

The visions and goals of Iran nomadic education can be found in various upstream documents. For example, in the statutes of nomadic schools of the Ministry of Education (2014) it is stated that in order to be more flexible and provide special facilities for nomadic students - according to their special cultural, social, economic, geographical and climatic characteristics - the following goals to be pursued: 1- Providing equal educational opportunities in order to have fair and easy access of nomadic students to educational facilities and appropriate learning programs in all parts of the country 2- Blocking the causes of illiteracy and improving the educational coverage of nomadic children with an emphasis on girl. Also, the 16th value statement of general education system of the “Fundamental Transformation Document of Education”, emphasized on "Educational justice in quantitative dimensions (universal and mandatory) and qualitative justice with respect for individual, gender, cultural and geographical differences" (Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution, 2011: 10). In addition, the solution 3-5 of the same document has been taken into consideration "empowering students living in deprived areas, villages, outskirts of cities, nomadic nomads and also bilingual areas with special needs with emphasis on creating opportunities diverse and quality education" (Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution, 2011: 22).

In addition to these cases, it is stated in the “National Curriculum Document” that the curricula of the first three years of the primary school should be developed in a flexible manner - taking into account the abilities and differences of the students and prerequisite and compensatory trainings for children from underprivileged and bilingual areas (Ministry of Education ,2013). In the section “principles governing curricula and educational programs” (paragraph 3-7) of same document consider impact of differences and stated: "Curriculum and educational programs should emphasize the common features, but also the differences caused by the environment (urban, rural, nomadic, cultural and geographical), gender & individual of students (talents, abilities, needs and interests) should be taken into account and have the necessary flexibility. Also, in the basics of sociology section of the “National Curriculum Document”, it is stated that: "In addition to having a common culture, the Iranian society (urban, rural, and nomadic) is also made up of different subcultures. The curriculum deals with national culture and subcultures should play an active, unifying and enhancing role. In addition to the fact that reforming and improving the culture of the society is one of the most important missions of the curriculum; It is educational and educational (Ministry of Education, 2013). In addition to the fact that reforming and improving society's culture is one of the most important missions of the curriculum; preventing re-production of social inequalities and spreading justice is also one of the basic missions of curricula (Ministry of Education, 2013). Based on this, the all-round provision of educational justice is considered in the document of "Strategic Transformation of Formal & General Education System of Islamic Republic of Iran in the Horizon of Vision" (Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution, 2010).

2. Nigeria

Nomadic education in Nigeria is responsible for providing access to quality formal and non-formal education for nomadic students in order to strengthen their skills equip with relevant information for professional improvement and preparation for social & national development (Olaniran, 2018). ). Training of nomadic students is viewed as a tool for national unity and economic & social development. Emphasis on promoting national unity and increasing empathy is one of the priorities of the Nigerian educational system for nomadic communities. Paying attention to this priority has led to the provision of suitable funds for universities to improve and promote nomadic education (Muhammad, Zaga & Isah, 2019). The main goals of the nomad education program in Nigeria are: Providing relevant & practical basic education to the nomads; Improving survival skills of nomads by providing knowledge & skills that allow them to increase their productivity and income level, and effective participation in the socio-economic and political affairs of the country (Amadi, 2015). Also, the purpose of nomad education in Nigeria is to create a sense of belonging and participation in nomads and to preserve their rights as stipulated in the constitution. In this way, nomadic education contributes to the participation of learners and reduces their exclusion from curricula, cultures and learning communities (Amadi, 2015:33).

The goal of nomadic education is to equip students with interactive skills that are necessary for their way of life - such as communication & negotiation skills -, while traditional education may not place much emphasis on these skills. Also, according to Aminu and Muhammad (2015), the goals of educating nomadic students in Nigeria are: Access to education, fair education, cultural sensitivity, functional literacy, empowerment & social mobility, community participation, and holistic development. According to the National Nomadic Education Commission (2019) in Nigeria, the goals and objectives of nomadic education are: Inculcating national awareness and national unity; 2- Instilling right type of values ​​& attitudes for survival of individual and society; 3- Mind training to understand the world around (scientific & critical thinking training), and 4- acquiring appropriate skills, abilities & competencies (mental, social & physical). Nomadic education in Nigeria not only empowers nomads through reading and writing skills, but also enhances their acquisition of skills, knowledge and competencies to enable them to improve income standards, increase grazing capacities (such as housing, grazing management techniques; appropriate, effective use of animal food and its components; improving scientific production of livestock; and scientific care of livestock in dealing with livestock diseases) (Shagari & Bello, 2013).

1. C) Content

1. Iran

The titles of the subjects of the nomadic primary schools - similar to the national curriculum - include the following courses: Heavenly Gifts (value Education), Quran, mathematics, Persian language, physical education, social studies, technological & work, and art & experimental sciences. The content of curriculum based on teaching cultural and educational values ​​compatible with religious and Quranic teachings. Solution 5-5 of the “ Fundamental Transformation Document of Education (Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution, 2011) has created the opportunity to find content suitable for the nomadic ecosystem in the curriculum: "At least 10% and at most 20% of educational programs should be introduced professions, arts, geography, rituals and customs, needs & climatic and geographical conditions of the provinces - especially rural and nomadic areas - in accordance with the standards of improving the quality and strengthening Islamic/Iranian identity of students creating efficiency & strengthening the national identity. Also, the "Solutions" section the “Fundamental Transformation Document of Education” has emphasized on creating basic preparation in nomadic students. This initial preparation makes the content of primary course familiar and understandable for the nomadic student. "According to the economic situation and special cultural conditions of the nomadic areas, the implementation of pre-school courses, bilingual preparation, and measuring the health of students ready to enter primary school in these areas are mandatory, universal and free (Ministry of Education, 2013: 2). Also, in the strategy 1-1 of the "Fundamental Transformation Document of Education ", the rule of cultural/educational approach in content creation and strengthening of students' basic competencies is emphasized (Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution, 2011).

In addition, it is stated in the aforementioned document (Resolution 1-1 Paragraph a) that: The content of textbooks and teaching hours and school days should be adjusted to the capabilities and characteristics of students (Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution, 2011). Despite this emphasis, when Iranian students start their education, they are taught in the formal language of Farsi, which is sometimes different from the local and mother tongue of nomadic children. Research also shows that teachers sometimes face challenges in presenting and conveying materials to nomadic students. For example, Farmahini Farahani, Madani & Azimi Aqbalag, 2021: 13) quoting a nomadic teacher’s words: "Teaching in Persian language is not possible. In the best case, I ask the question in Farsi, but the students answer in Turkish." Mahmoudi, Azimi Aqbalag & Madani, (2019: 26) quoted from a teacher who says, "I have problems in training because of teaching in Persian language. Student does not understand the concept and meaning of words and I have to translate it. For example, Camel means "Doh" or River means "Chailag". The challenge of the content and implementation of the formal curriculum in nomadic schools increases when the content and teaching are carried out by less experienced and unfamiliar teachers in the nomadic environment. Turani & Arefnejad (2016) and Heydarzadegan and Sandogdaran (2016) found that most classes in rural and nomadic schools are run by novice teachers or soldier-teachers. Soldier-teachers usually have no motivation to teach/learn or apply the principles and methods of education and their only intention is to complete two years of military service.

2. Nigeria

" National Commission for Nomadic Education " in its continuous effort to provide suitable content for nomadic children through its center at Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto and provided related texts in eight subjects - Basic science, Mathematics, Social Studies, English Language, Islamic Religious Education, Health Education & Handicrafts, Fulfulde Language (local language) - for Grades 1-6 of primary schools. In addition, the preparation and editing of these textual materials resulted in the production of relevant and quality materials that reflect the socio-cultural lifestyle of the nomads. However, there are still not enough educational resources - exercise books and written materials (National Commission for Nomadic Education, 2012).

Since 2004, the emphasis of the Ministry of Education on the importance of using the native language has led to the production of texts with local content for nomadic children. In addition, because the designers of textbooks have a native and nomadic background, they have used local samples, images and photos in the textbooks. This action made it somewhat easier for the children of the nomads to read and understand the subject. Also, nomadic teachers are more willing to use native artifacts and materials in education. The purpose of producing appropriate educational materials was to reflect the socio-cultural lifestyle of nomads and to extract concrete examples from their economic activities and daily life for use in nomadic schools (Bayero, 2015). One of the motivations of the Nigerian educational planners to improve the quality of primary nomadic education is the use of mother tongue as the language of instruction in the Grade 1-3 of primary nomadic schools. Hence, many scientific/educational texts have been translated into the local language (Usman, 2006). Based on this, the content of the educational curriculum for nomadic children should include practical skills that will ultimately help them find the necessary concentration or diversity in their career orientations (Abdulrahman, 2016).

1. d) Infrastructure and support

1. Iran

A nomadic school in Iran is a school where more than fifty percent of pupils are nomadic children and it is managed in three ways 1- Mobile: A school whose students travel with the tribe during the academic year. 2- Semi-mobile: A school where parents move, but students stay in the place in different ways and then move, and; 3- Permanent school: A school that is established in permanent settlements of nomads (Ministry of Education, 2013). According to the "Statute of Nomadic Schools", the Ministry of Education is obliged to educational justice and create a balanced development platform in nomadic areas, a special credit line entitled "Development of Nomadic Education" through coordination with the " Organization for Management & Planning " and in the budget annually (Ministry of Education , 2013). Also, according to “Solution 1-14” of the “Fundamental Transformation Document of Education”, educational spaces should be designed and built in accordance with the requirements of curriculum, educational standards, demographic changes, principles of urban planning & architecture and climatic conditions (Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution 2010: 28). Despite these recommendations, field research shows that sanitary facilities have been built for 800 nomadic schools but there are still thousands of schools without it (Saifi, 2019). In relation to the lack of proper infrastructure for nomadic schools, one of the teachers believes: “I did not find anything that was designated as a student toilet by previous teachers. The failure of the teachers in this regard was obvious because the bladder volume of primary school pupils is small and they need to go to the bathroom more than adults" (Musaei Gole, 2016: 161). In many nomadic schools, due to the lack of proper drinking water and sanitary facilities , the health of nomadic students is endangered (Attaran & Abdoli, 2013).

Other findings also depict the condition of nomadic schools from the aspect of physical space; for example, "because our school does not have a private yard, sometimes parents enter the school and classes without prior notice and want to do their children (students) something for them immediately (such as buying bread) " (Mahmoudi, Azimi Aqbalag & Madani, 2019), or "Living in a tent and holding classes in a open space without shelter, reduces the spirit of learning in nomadic children. A nomadic school consists of only a tent and during cold or rain weather, Nomadic students are deprived of facilities" (Bastan, 2015). The documents and certificates belonging to the nomadic school are kept either in the trunk of the car or in the teacher's house, which has no guarantee of their safety because they may be stolen by uninformed people. Children are also not safe from the rain penetrating the tents (Musaei Gole, 2016). Therefore, the physical space of schools is unsuitable because most of them are tents or old and unsafe buildings (Shams Al-Dini, 2016). Another part of the findings indicates that nomadic schools do not have access to electricity. Attaran and Abdoli (2013) confirm this matter: "Students cannot do their homework after sunset due to the lack of facilities such as electricity". Also, due to the lack of electricity, it is less possible to use tablet phones and virtual space to educate nomadic students (Musaei Gole, 2016). Some nomadic schools are not equipped with electricity, which causes many problems for teachers and students because they cannot use modern technology such as computer or laptop (Bastan, 2015). Several other studies have been published regarding the heating and cooling system of nomadic schools. A number of nomadic classes are still heated with firewood and unauthorized devices, which are very dangerous and there is a high possibility of fire. Also, the smell of smoke and oil in these classes is annoying (Mosaei, 2016). In winter, sometimes the class is closed due to heater failure and extreme cold (Mahmoudi et al., 2019).

2. Nigeria

There are three types of nomadic schools in Nigeria: 1- Schools with fixed and permanent structures where nomadic students spend a significant period of time during the year in that place (for example, four to seven months); 2- Schools with temporary structures where nomadic students stay there for about two to three months, and 3- Schools with movable and collapsible structures that are moved along with the nomads in seasonal migrations. These structures are mainly used for permanent nomadic groups (Umar & Tahir, 2009). Mobile schools use collapsible classrooms that can be assembled or disassembled in 30 minutes and are easily transported by pack animals. A mobile school consists of three classrooms, each with spaces to serve 15 to 20 students. These classes are equipped with audio-visual educational aids (Fakayode, 2014). One of the important measures taken by the Nigerian government to support the education of nomads was the establishment of the "National Commission for Nomadic Education" in 1989. The task of this commission is: 1- Formulate policies and issue guidelines in all matters related to the education of nomads in Nigeria, 2- provide budget for research & development of personnel to improve nomadic education, 3- Setting standards for skills that should be included in nomadic education, 4- Effective supervision of departments related to nomadic education, 5- Establishing, managing and maintaining primary schools in settlements that have been built for Nomads, 6- Collecting, analyzing and disseminating information related to the education of nomads, 7- Effective inspection of educational activities of nomads, and 8- Preparing reliable statistics of nomads and school-age children (Unglued et al., 2023 ). A series of important actions of the "National Commission for Nomadic Education" (2012) are as follows: 1- Conducting studies on the lifestyle and educational needs of different nomadic groups 2- Adaptation of the curriculum for primary schools in eight subjects, including health education & handicrafts. 3- Preparation of teachers' guides for eight subjects in the primary schools. 4- Holding annual teacher training workshops for teachers working in nomadic schools in order to familiarize them with the characteristics and expectations of nomadic education curriculum. 5- Development of a distance education plan in order to give more nomadic children access to primary education. 6- Attracting the participation of nomadic communities in order to build, finance and manage schools and 7- Continuous and regular monitoring of nomadic schools.

Another initiative of the aforementioned commission is to use the scientific/educational capabilities of four major Nigerian universities for the education of nomads, namely the University of JOS (research and evaluation on behalf of the commission to determine appropriate strategies for implementation of the nomadic education program), the University of Maiduguri (for teacher training programs and their professional development); Usmanu Danfodiyo , Sokoto (for development of books and text materials); and the University of Port-Harcourt (for research & curriculum development) (National Commission for Nomadic Education, 2012). One of the remarkable infrastructures of nomadic education in Nigeria is the establishment of Networked schooling. A network school provides the conditions by which the cycle of dropouts caused by migration can be broken, as it allows children to continue learning throughout the year so that during the season when fodder and water are available, students enroll in the main school. As the dry season approaches, pupils enter different schools during migration and are allowed to travel to wherever their family migrates and use schools and classes (Akwe, 2018).

Another infrastructure of nomadic education is the use of radio in the education of primary school students. Interactive Radio Instruction is an educational tool designed to provide active learning by radio broadcasters. An external teaching element (a teacher who is not present in the classroom) participates in classroom activities with the teacher present in the class and students through the radio. In interactive radio education, four-way interaction is created as follows: 1- Radio teacher (the teacher who is stationed in the radio studio) - Teacher in the classroom, 2- Radio teacher - students, 3- Teacher in the classroom - students, 4- Students - students. The radio-teacher presents the content while verbally guiding the school-teacher to implement more interactive teaching approaches in the class. This radio program enables nomadic teachers and students to carry out specific instructions to provide space for further interaction. During the broadcast of the program, the students through the approach of storytelling & parable, verbal response, games, exercises, question & answer, songs, team work, physical & intellectual activities, discussion & demonstration, and questions and exercises react to radio-teacher performance (Ugochukwu & Ezeah, 2020). The important thing is that the presentation of the lessons is in the evening or early morning, taking into account the time when the nomadic child is not busy doing anything for the family. Also, nomadic parents are eager to participate in interactive radio classes because new methods of animal husbandry and different agricultural techniques are broadcasted and taught on the radio. Another feature of nomadic education in Nigeria is the participation of domestic and international groups and organizations for the education of nomadic children. So far, these collaborations have been carried out between local & international NGOs, religious groups, the Nigerian Development Association, UNESCO, the United Nations Development Program and World Bank (Olaniran, 2013).

Second Stage: Juxtaposition and Comparison

In this part of the research, according to Bereday's model, first, the juxtaposition stage was executed and tables were drawn. Immediately after each table, the researchers performed the comparison stage of Bereday's model and determined the similarities and differences in the categories of the research.

Table 1. Juxtaposition of goals and vision of nomadic education

Table 2. Juxtaposition of nomadic education content

Table 3. Juxtaposition of Infrastructure and support of nomadic education

Table 4. Comparison of nomadic education in Iran and Nigeria

According to the table, there are similarities in four components and differences in fifteen components between two countries in nomadic education system. Realization of educational justice, creation of national unity between nomads and other members of the society and establishment of fixed, semi-mobile and mobile schools are among the most important similarities. In the difference section, the use of distance education approach - especially interactive radio education -, using capacity of universities to support curriculum of nomadic schools, building mobile schools is evident in Nigeria, while Iranian educational planners pay more attention to the dimensions such as : free and compulsory preschool education, educational justice in quantitative and qualitative dimensions  and emphasizing the coverage of female students.

Discussion

The purpose of research was to investigate comparative characteristics of nomadic education in the primary education of Iran and Nigeria in the three dimensions of goals and prospects, content, and infrastructure & support. The findings revealed that the goals and prospects of nomadic education in Iran were expressed with more general propositions and phrases compared to Nigeria. However, categories such as equality of educational opportunities and educational justice are among the ideals that are repeatedly mentioned in the upstream documents of Iran’s nomadic education while this is less observed in Nigerian documents. This finding is in line with the finding of Azimi Aqbalag (2023) which indicated that the word "educational justice" was mentioned separately or in combination with other words almost fourteen times in the “Fundamental Reform Document of Education System of Iran".

Focusing on communication skills, negotiation and peaceful resolution of disputes also has a special place in the curriculum of Nigerian tribes. It is clear that the purpose of preparing such skills is to create and establish peaceful relations among nomadic tribes. In this regard, Torimiro, Dionco-Adetayo & Okorie (2003) showed that the nomadic method of raising animals has created specific cultural characteristics such as violence, aggression and resistance to foreign culture. On the contrary, in Iran's primary education, there is no specific curriculum under the title of “peace education” or similar titles, and the amount of attention to the concepts and components of peace in the design of the primary curriculum is very low (Dehghani & Bagharian Far, 2022). This gap exists while Attaran and Abdoli (2013) and Godarzi (1995) emphasize that including topics such as "peace education" in the curriculum of Iranian nomadic students - from the very early childhood - has valid reasons. In the tribal culture, similarities and differences between the tribes - even the family lineage- can be a source of conflict, and the tendency towards self-superiority in the tribal culture and its induction in the relationships of individuals has created many problems for the education of nomadic children. Nigeria's experience can help Iranian nomad education planners in this field. Nigeria's experience can help Iranian nomad education planners in this field.

It was also observed that the prevention of causes of illiteracy and attention to the maximum educational coverage for female students has always been one of the demands of Iran's educational policy makers. In the constitution of nomadic education of the Ministry of Education (2013), it is emphasized that in order to prevent nomadic students from stopping their education - especially female students - equal educational opportunities should be provided. This goal can be better achieved if the Ministry of Education pays more attention to attracting indigenous or even non-indigenous female teachers. Hiring female teachers to educate girls will remove the cultural resistance of parents (Azimi Aqbalag et al., 2022). Of course, some policies of the Ministry of Education of Iran are also worthy of praise. For example, a nomadic school is established with even one student. This feature of Iran's educational system can contain an important message for the policymakers of the nomadic education system in Nigeria to give more value to girls' education; especially since female students are always exposed to harm such as child-wife.

The findings of the research in the content dimension showed that in the curriculum of Nigerian nomadic students, "Health and Handicraft Education" is emphasized as an independent subject. In this regard, Lawani (2016) emphasizes that teaching these subjects is very important because nomads struggle with many health problems - such as problems caused by living in a harsh & hostile environment, inappropriate shelter, Insect and snake bites, water-borne diseases, animal-to-human diseases and. On the contrary, the presence of concepts and themes related to health education in the curriculum of the primary school of Iranian nomads is not very prominent. According to Dehghani and Bagharian Far (2022), getting students used to washing their hands properly after leaving the toilet and before eating and using safe drinking water is one of the important issues of health education in nomadic areas. In this regard, Fanai (2022) says about the nomadic population of one of Iran's provinces: The lifestyle of nomads is hard and children are usually malnourished.

The findings of "infrastructure and support" indicated that interactive radio education is available in the nomadic schools of Nigeria. Confirming the importance of this type of teaching, Ugochukwu, & Ezeah (2020) found that primary school students - the experimental group compare to control group - who were trained with the interactive radio teaching method scored higher in reading and writing, mathematics and life skills. In addition, mobile folding classrooms equipped with technology are used in nomadic primary schools of Nigeria, which has increased the quality of learning and made these schools more attractive. On the contrary, the situation is different in Iran. Saifi (2021) believes that it is not fair that some Iranian students to study in schools with the latest educational technologies in the world and at the same time another group of them show up in damp classrooms or schools made of clay and mud and on the verge of destruction with concern. Another notable achievement of the “National Commission for Nomads of Education” in Nigeria is that it commissioned four prestigious universities to design and develop a curriculum compatible with the nomadic culture and needs. Nomadic education planners in Nigeria use the capacity of the universities well, while Iran educational system has not yet been able to use the scientific and educational capacity of numerous universities to enhance the quality of nomadic education.

Based on the findings, the following suggestions are presented to the nomadic educational planners in Iran: 1) "Peace Education" and "Health Education" should be added to the nomadic primary school curriculum, 2) The Ministry of Education should take a special look at the establishment of educational technology in nomadic schools. In addition, with the necessary infrastructure, the capacity of the media and cyberspace should be used in the nomadic schools, 3) the authorities must build moving schools and equipped with educational facilities and technology, and 4- The joint workgroup - consisting of experts from the Ministry of Education, Nomadic Education Experts and university representatives - should be formed to develop appropriate training for nomadic students.