1. Introduction

                In recent decades, the world has witnessed fundamental changes in various fields of science & technology. The results of the introduction of information and communication technology in life include the emergence of concepts such as: information society, information age, and knowledge-based economy (Sadr & Rast, 2022). The adoption of digital technology in education in developed countries is also progressing at an accelerated pace, although this issue does not occur at the same speed in different countries (Landri, 2018). For this reason, attention to the curriculum of technology education has attracted curriculum experts and educational planners (Zoufan, 2017). In this situation, teachers no longer play a central role, and the goal of the class is to develop cognitive skills of learners (Eadie, 2001). In this regard, extensive research has examined and implemented technology curricula in various educational systems, some of the findings of which are mentioned:

Estigoy (2021) examined the readiness of ICT and its integration into the teaching & learning process in private higher secondary schools of Philippines and concluded that there was a significant relationship between teachers’ readiness to use ICT and the extent to which it was used in the classroom teaching process. Sun et al. (2024) found that the use of ICT on scientific higher-order thinking skills (S-HOTS) in schools depends on the way in which ICT is used and its integration into the learning process. Rezaei et al. (2022) conducted a comparative study of integrated STEM curricula (STEM is an acronym for the four scientific disciplines of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics ) in Finland, Singapore, and USA and concluded that all three countries have set the goal of STEM education as achieving 21st century skills and preparing a skilled workforce. The most important difference between Finland and the two selected countries is lack of special STEM schools, emphasis on collaborative learning, deep attention to issue of integrating science and training professional teachers in all disciplines. Ajit et al. (2022) studied the situation of secondary schools in Malaysia and concluded that the impact of challenges such as insufficient teachers’ knowledge & skills, students' lack of understanding of abstract subjects, and inadequate facilities, equipment & resources cannot be ignored. Niiranen et al. (2022) studied technology education in Finland and emphasized that the role and place of the technology education curriculum in this country is unclear and there is a need for a clear re-definition for it at the national curriculum level. Saarinen et al. (2021) believe that although some students have ICT skills, they may not have a specific goal and understanding of the impact of personal use of digital technologies - which can enhance their learning. Kaarakainen&  Saikkonen (2021) found that before the COVID-19 pandemic, Finnish teachers used digital devices in their teaching on average at least once a week, and that changes in teachers’ use of technology occurred mainly at the individual level. Hardy et al. (2019) examine the challenges and prospects of a robotics course to complement the Australian digital technology curriculum, arguing that challenges arise when complementary programs are not aligned with the indigiuouse curriculum. Starkey and Finger (2018), examining ICT in Australia and New Zealand education policies found that a key challenge for both countries is providing equitable access to opportunities for teachers & students to effectively integrate digital technologies into teaching and learning process. Abrahamson et al. (2016) found that the results of using technology in Australian curricula were very effective and increased student participation in activities, increased awareness of complex and difficult topics, interest and motivation to learn, and teachers' awareness of students' learning difficulties. Similar research has also been conducted in Iran in recent years. For example, Kian (2019), through a comparative study of ICT programs in the education systems of Australia, Finland, and Iran, found that addressing challenges such as weakness in attracting private sector participation, lack of long-term financial investment, lack of pre-service teacher training, and lack of a coherent assessment strategy could be a great step towards developing ICT programs in the Iranian general education system. Abolhasani and Dehghani (2020) by analyzing the pathology of the vocational & technology curriculum in middle secondary school indicated that the implementation of this curriculum faces numerous problems and disadvantages such as lack of facilities and sufficient budget to provide equipment. Despite the fact that previous studies have to some extent identified the dimensions, components, and challenges of the ICT curriculum, it seems that- in a comparative perspective - the need to attention to the experiences of successful countries  still can contain instructive lessons for planners in developing countries such as Iran. Based on this thought, the overall goal of the present study is to determine the similarities and differences of ICT education curriculum in higher secondary schools of selected countries.

2. Research Method

           The present research method is qualitatively comparative and George Z.F. Bereday's approach was used for data analysis. The strategy for selecting countries was "different social systems, different educational outputs" and the data collection method was documentary through keyword searches in international information databases such as Google Scholar, EBSCO, ERIC finding primary sources (documents about objectives, content, teaching methods and evaluation of ICT education curriculum in secondary school of selected countries) and secondary sources (books and articles). To judge the validity of documents, attention was paid to external and internal criticism of sources. In external criticism, the authenticity of the document (by examining and comparing documents) and in internal criticism, the importance and accuracy of the content of documents were considered.

3. Findings

                According to the Bereday’s regional approach, the research results are presented in four stages: of description, interpretation, juxtaposition and comparison.

Stage 1) Description

         According to the regional approach, this section describes the ICT curriculum in the selected countries:

Australia

          Since the 1980s, Technology education has been a recognised and compulsory subject area in Australia. This shift has reflected the increasing importance of technology in the Australian educational system with students, teachers and therefore schools now having access to a wide range of digital technologies(Williams et al, 2019). Secondary schools also use a high level of educational technology in the classroom (Jones, 2016). The technology curriculum includes two main areas: ‘Design & Technology’ – which emphasises design thinking – and ‘Digital Technology’ – which focuses on computational thinking. These two areas help students to engage in the design process and generate innovative solutions (Australian Curriculum, Assessment &  Reporting Authority “ACARA”, 2015).

          Educational Objectives: The overall goal of technology education in Australian secondary schools is to produce technologically literate individuals. Through the ICT curriculum, secondary school students are expected to become creative, knowledgeable, skilled and risk-takers (Rasinen et al, 2009). The curriculum strives to develop informed and active citizens who are able to analyse impacts of technology on society and environment. The technology curriculum clearly emphasises social, economic & environmental needs. For example, students are encouraged to consider the impacts of their designs on users (ACARA, 2018). The technology curriculum is responsive to students’ needs & interests and attempts to connect the content to real-life experiences of students. This has been highlighted in feedback collected from teachers and stakeholders (Blannin et al., 2022). According to the ACARA final report on the technology curriculum, the key objectives of the program are:To provide opportunities for students to develop key skills in the fields of design & digital technology. These skills include critical thinking, problem solving and ability to work with new technologies (ACARA, 2021). Rather than using key ideas, the curriculum emphasizes the fundamental concepts that form infrastructure of the two subjects of “Design & Technology” and “Digital Technology”. This reform was made to improve students' understanding of the main concepts and connections between them (ACARA, 2021:15). The technology curriculum also emphasizes recognition and inclusion of Indigenous Australian histories and cultures in the curriculum. This is done to promote awareness and respect for cultural & social diversity in this country. Another key goal is to reduce the amount of curriculum content and improve the manageability of it in the early years. To this end, the number of technology platforms has been reduced and repetitive content has been removed (ACARA, 2021:20). Improving the curriculum content and reducing its amount as a goal helps teachers to easily implement that content in their classrooms. This is clearly evident in the feedback from teachers and stakeholders (Blannin et al., 2022). The curriculum emphasizes the development of design thinking & practical skills. This goal includes students’ ability to create and evaluate innovative solutions to real-world problems and helps them strengthen their digital capabilities and become familiar with concepts related to privacy and security in the digital world (ACARA, 2021:35). The technology curriculum also helps students develop problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity skills in various technological fields (Blannin et al., 2022).

           Educational Content : The Australian education system seeks to create a dynamic and effective learning environment in the field of technology by emphasizing practical learning, effective management of curriculum content, attention to student needs, development of critical thinking & creativity, and teacher training (ACARA, 2021). Teachers are allowed to adjust lessons to suit the interests and needs of students. In this way, curriculum content is selected and developed according to the individual characteristics and needs of students, and teachers use electronic & digital resources. In the e-learning process, course materials are provided to students in a flexible and manipulable way. Students also combine data in visual, audio, symbolic and electronic formats by examining existing data and creating new information. In addition, learners compile format and publish information in the form of text, models, simulations and diagrams, and transfer them to others. In this process, students learn production, design, and systems thinking skills & creative solutions to solve problems and needs of individual and social life (Williams et al., 2019).

Finland

            In the 2010s, Finnish school curricula underwent significant reforms with the aim of digitalization (Kaarakainen & Saikkonen, 2021). In Finland need to accelerate the digitalization of education has attracted considerable public attention. For example, the digitalization of education was prominently featured in the Finnish government’s 2015 strategic plan, which predicted that digital learning environments and innovative educational approaches would help strengthen future skills, increase lifelong learning, reduce dropout rates, and create opportunities for innovation in Finnish society (Kaarakainen & Saikkonen, 2021:954). In Finland, the 21st century has seen a particular focus on social media such as mobiles. Digital devices and games along with social networks, have quickly become a more vital skill. In 2023, the Finnish education system once again ranked first in terms of media literacy compared to 47 European and OECD countries (Finland Ministry of Education and Culture, 2024). The increased use of ICT in the Finnish education system has followed government measures, such that programming and computational thinking have become a mandatory part of the curriculum (Bocconi, et al , 2016). However, these concepts are usually taught as sub-topics in mathematics and similar subjects, rather than as independent subjects. These reforms have increased the need for appropriate hardware and software for students and teachers. Teachers have also been required to learn the principles of computational thinking and programming, which has increased their digital literacy (Yadav et al., 2017). According to Salokangas et al. (2019), the autonomy of teachers’ profession is a prominent feature of the Finnish education system, ranging from planning, teaching, and assessment to the development of individual professional skills. This autonomy allows teachers to make their own decisions about the digital and non-digital environments they want to use in their teaching.

            Educational Goals: In order to develop technology in the Finnish school curriculum, a project entitled " ICTs in School’s Everyday Life" was implemented. The goal of this project was to create a national educational technology plan to provide schools with access to practical models and innovative teaching methods. The project also aims to generate new knowledge about the latest developments in ICT (Niiranen at al,2021). The process of revising the Finnish core curriculum for basic education began in 2012 and the final documents were published at the end of 2014. The new curriculum emphasizes 21st century skills such as critical & creative thinking skills and collaborative learning methods (Vahtivuori-Hänninen, et al,2016). Health and environmental protection, etiquette, problem solving using digital tools, solving common problems, innovation & creative use of technology , identifying digital competence gaps, and acquiring skills (including ability to solve technical problems, meet needs and technological responses) are other major goals of the technology curriculum in Finland (Siddiq et al, 2016). The overall goal of technology education in Finland is to increase students' self-esteem through the development of attractive functional skills and activities. Teachers should encourage a sense of independence in students and facilitate the growth of their creative skills through problem-based learning and development of technical literacy (Autio et al, 2019). In fact, the use of new technologies in the country's education system helps students become familiar with new techniques & tools and learn the skills necessary to face challenges of digital age (Bennett & Maton, 2010;Lehto & Neittaanmäki, 2023).

           Educational Content:In Finnish primary and secondary schools, ICT is seen as a general tool to help learn other subjects or as a main for teaching (European Schoolnet and University of Liège, 2012). The Finnish curriculum refers to basic computer skills (hardware & software). Comprehensive school curricula are designed to provide basic ICT skills to all students. Although there is no specific subject in this field, its teaching integrated into all subjects to provide better and more effective learning. It should be noted that this also depends on the curriculum of each educational district. Some districts may offer ICT as a separate subject. In this case, the content includes the following: Word processing, use of office software, multimedia applications & communications. Optional ICT courses may also be offered to students to acquire computer skills. Teachers in Finland are teaching programming as a new part of the curriculum. Curriculum objectives for programming include supporting students’ skills in programming basics, familiarity with programming environments, creating simple programs and using programming to build innovative artifacts (Korhonen et al, 2023). According to the World Bank, during the 2020 school closures in Finland, students were taught through alternative digital methods, such as distance learning, digital learning environments, and guidance for independent learning. Also, during this time, digital teaching tools for distance learning, especially online conferencing tools, were widely used, allowing students to complete projects and assignments individually and participate in classes online (World Bank, 2020). In addition, communication between home and school is routinely done through online platforms. These online tools are used to provide teacher feedback, assignments to students, and send student’s scores & progress reports to parents and school administrators (Kaarakainen & Saikkonen, 2021). The content of the technological curriculum focuses on content creation, safety, problem solving and operational technical skills in the information dimension - including browsing, searching, filtering, evaluating information, storing and retrieving information. Teaching interaction through digital technologies, sharing information & content, participating in online citizenship & collaboration through digital technologies, computer programming, and protecting personal digital data are also part of the technology curriculum in schools (Siddiq et al, 2016). The Finnish curriculum also focuses on teaching concepts such as computer science, calculations, programming, computational thinking, and digital literacy (Heintz et al., 2016 as cited in Korhonen et al, 2023). Lander reports on the content of the technology curriculum in Finnish schools: “The main focus of teacher and students was on the digital screen, not on the blackboard. After the class was over, teacher allowed all visitors to walk around the classroom and take pictures freely. During the visit, I noticed that the teacher’s desk contained items such as a main hardware unit, a computer connected to the screen, a digital projector with a camera connected to the screen, and an iPad. It later became clear that these facilities are available in all classrooms of country” (Lander, 2019: 35).

Figure 1 & 2: Educational technology in a Finnish school classroom (Source : Lander, 2019)

              Another influential component of this classroom observation was the use of iPads by students. In two cases and during class, the teacher taught pupils how to use the iPad. The first involved reviewing vocabulary introduced in the previous week’s class using a tool namely “Quizlet”. Students received an iPad from the teacher and diligently set up their devices. They also worked on an assignment in pairs – reviewing vocabulary with Quizlet. The second involved listening to audio files related to a section of the textbook. Pupils accessed this again via a Bookmark Saved and worked on the material in pairs for five minutes (Lander, 2019: 35). Thus, modern technologies such as Learning Management Systems (LMS) and online educational tools are widely used in the Finnish curriculum. These tools help teachers to present educational content in engaging and interactive ways (Rafiq et al., 2024). In this regard, the Finnish Cybersecurity Development Plan emphasizes that in basic education, young people should be given sufficient skills to work in the digital environment and that they should recognize cybersecurity threats and know how to protect themselves against them (Digital Watch, 2024). A study conducted on cybersecurity education in Finland in 2021-2022 showed that there is a need to take steps to make cybersecurity a central aspect of educational planning and teaching (Lehto & Neittaanmäki, 2023 )

Malaysia

The world’s first smart school was established in Malaysia, and in fact, the country should be considered the originator of this project. Following its Vision 2020, the Malaysian government tried to prepare the country for Age of Information through the  Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) and e-City projects. The Smart School Project was one of the seven major MSC projects. The Malaysian Government’s 1997 Document stated: “Malaysia needs a serious transformation to move from an industrialized country to a leading country in the information age. Malaysia must become a country with deep technological literacy, a workforce that is capable of working in the global economy and has acquired the skills to use the tools of the information age. To achieve this goal, the education system must undergo a maximum transformation (Bajunid, 2008 as cited in Attaran, 2019). The technology curriculum in Malaysian schools is designed to promote science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) skills. The program seeks to increase students' interest & ability in STEM fields, which is recognized as a national priority in education (Ajit et al., 2021).

              Educational Objectives: One of the main goals of the technology curriculum in Malaysian secondary schools is to enhance students’ critical thinking & problem-solving skills. Through using new technologies such as augmented reality (AR), students can experience complex scientific concepts visually and interactively. This helps them to gain deeper understanding and improve their analytical abilities (Ajit et al., 2021). This is especially important in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields (Hayes & Kraemer, 2017). Technology can help increase students’ motivation and engagement in the learning process. For example, the use of augmented reality (AR) in classrooms can make learning more engaging and interactive (Garzón & Acevedo, 2019). Technology helps students better understand abstract concepts and visualize them visually. This is especially useful in scientific fields that require spatial visualization (Cai et al., 2014). The use of technology can also enhance students’ collaboration and teamwork skills which are essential for success in future workplaces (Kamarainen et al., 2013). One of the key objectives of technology curriculum is to train teachers and develop their skills in using new technologies. This training helps teachers to effectively use technology in their teaching process and stay up-to-date (Ali & Bakar, 2019).Other goal is to promote ICT skills among teachers and students. These skills include familiarity with hardware, software, and network systems (Raman, Othman, & Affandi, 2019). Given the rapid changes in the job market and the need for technology skills, the technology curriculum helps students prepare for future careers. By focusing on STEM skills, the program prepares students for entry into technical and vocational fields as well as IT-related careers (Ajit et al., 2021). Other main objective is to equip students with ICT skills to be successful in today’s digital world. This objective is specifically aimed at improving the quality of education and increasing students’ interest in learning (Awang, 2020). Another main objective is to reduce the educational gap between urban and rural students. The Malaysian Ministry of Education (MOE) aims to develop technology skills and enhance learning in students by providing appropriate facilities and services for teaching/learning in rural areas (Hasin & Nasir, 2021).

          Educational Content: In the content section, the following can be mentioned: Creating & strengthening challenging thinking and motivated learning in students, network-based training and electronic course materials, interactive storybooks, games & simulation software, self-learning platforms, problem solving platforms, artificial intelligence, videos, online library , News bulletins , and Search engine (Bin, 2021). Technology-based curriculum allows teachers to create and utilize a variety of educational resources for their teaching (Ambikapathy, Halili, & Ramasamy, 2020). Technology-based educational content not only helps to improve students' understanding, but also enables teachers to adopt more creative methods for assessment and teaching (Murugan & Husnin, 2024: 1492). The use of new technologies in education, especially Augmented Reality, helps to increase students' motivation & interest in learning. Research has shown that integrating AR into the learning process can lead to increased student participation and engagement. This technology allows students to actively participate in the learning process and better understand concepts through practical experiences. This helps teachers identify students' strengths and weaknesses and tailor educational programs based on their needs (Ajit et al., 2021, ; Shah, 2020). Also, theoretical training on the history of technology and its impacts on society is included in  content(Hasin & Nasir, 2021). The educational content is designed based on the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model, which helps teachers understand the relationship between technology, content, and teaching methods. The educational content also includes practical activities that enable teachers to directly use technology in teaching (Shah, 2020).

USA

             After the launch of the Soviet Union’s Sputnik spacecraft into space in 1957, the United States embarked on a massive and unprecedented drive to accelerate scientific development and regain its leading position in science & technology. This led to the establishment of numerous curriculum development centers and implementation of centralized measures at the level of goals, exams and standards. The goal of these centers was to develop curricula that would have a long life and that were expected to best meet the goals and objectives of government officials (Winoto, 2022). Thus, the primary mission of the Department of Education was to promote student success and prepare them for global competition by promoting educational excellence and equal access. Currently, schools in the United States are using innovative methods of technology-based assessment. Schools emphasize project-based learning, and the technology curriculum seeks to strengthen students’ problem-solving & critical thinking skills. Also, this program seeks to develop communication skills and collaboration in technology-based environments among learners. Also, familiarity with design and engineering approaches as a creative and innovative process is one of the goals of this program. Finally, understanding complex scientific and mathematical concepts through the use of simulations & applied software is another goal of the curriculum (US.Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology, 2010).

            Educational Objectives: The main objectives of technology curriculum in secondary education include: familiarizing students with basic concepts and applications of artificial intelligence (AI) - such as machine learning & neural networks and focusing curricula on practical applications of artificial intelligence in everyday life -, creating readiness and a positive attitude towards learning through AI, increasing self-confidence and readiness to learn AI, creating a positive understanding and connection of AI with life, strengthening internal motivation to learn AI, creating interest and curiosity about topics related to AI, developing practical and interactive skills with AI technologies, strengthening interactive skills with tools and technologies related to AI, attention to ethical & social issues related to AI, and understanding the effects of AI on individual and social life (Christopoulos & Sprangers, 2021).

            Educational Content: In the United States, new curricula and standards are being developed to respond to technological, educational, and social changes (Moye et al., 2019). The Standards for Technological Literacy, published by the International Technology and Engineering Education Association (ITEEA), is used as the primary guide for developing technology educational content in American curricula (ITEEA, 2007: 208). The ITEEA’s approach to developing Integrative STEM Education (Integrative STEM Education) designs educational content with the goal of integrating technology and engineering with science and mathematics education (LaPorte & Sanders, 1995:29; Sanders, 2009:20-26). The technology and engineering educational content in these programs focuses on preparing students for future careers that require technological & engineering literacy (STEM, 2018). The development of standards for technology education in the United States has a long history, dating back to the 1920s (Reed, 2019: 236). These early standards were highly detailed and specific skill statements based on industry practices of the time. In the 1980s, the “A Nation at Risk” report focused on the need to increase educational rigor in the United States in order to make the workforce competitive in the global economy. This led to the creation of standards & assessments in many disciplines, including technology education (Reed, 2019: 235). The International Technology Education Association (ITEA) – now known as the International Technology & Engineering Education Association (ITEEA) – has played a key role in the development of several versions of technology education standards in the United States (Reed, 2019, p. 244). ITEA/ITEEA has published important documents, including: Technology Literacy Standards: The Content of Technology Learning (ITEA/ITEEA, 2000, 2007), which outlines 20 standards and 286 key points for technology education (Reed, 2019, p. 239-244). Advancing Excellence in Technology Literacy: Student Assessment, Professional Development & Program Standards (ITEA/ITEEA, 2003), which provides standards for assessment, professional development & technology education programs (Reed, 2019, p. 243). These standards have evolved over time, moving from very specific skill statements to broad concepts & ideas related to technology literacy (Reed, 2019, p. 235-246). In addition, curriculum content in other disciplines, such as science, mathematics, social studies, and educational technology, has developed standards that explicitly include technology components (Reed, 2019, p. 244–246). In sum, the development of technology education standards in the United States has been an ongoing process, driven by professional organizations as well as educational reform efforts such as increasing academic rigor and preparing students for the global economy (Reed, 2019, p. 235–246).

Second Stage : Interpretation

          This section examines the social context and historical development of ICT curriculum development in selected countries.

          Australia

          To date, four national strategic plans have been considered in Australia for the technology education curriculum: the National Education Action Plan, Technical & Vocational Education Sector Action Plan, Higher Education Sector Action Plan, and School Education & Online Learning Sector Action Plan (Kian, 2019). In 2001, the National Education Performance Monitoring Task Force (NEPMT) reported on the characteristics of the information & communication systems required to access, collect, manipulate and present information. The most important actions of the latter group, which were reported in 2002, included the development of a framework for measuring key performance indicators based on progress towards national goals in schools and development of a framework for reporting on these activities. The report is produced annually and reflects effective actions to improve the performance of programs and factors involved (Eadie, 2001). The ICT curriculum in Australia has been developed under the Teaching Teachers for the Future (TTF) project, which aims to strengthen the ICT teaching capacity of the next generation of Australian teachers. The project focuses specifically on education of pre-service teachers and trainers, and seeks to effectively integrate technology into teaching & learning (Romeo, Lloyd & Downes, 2012: 950). Funded by the Australian Government and in partnership with 39 higher education institutions, the TTF project seeks to bring about fundamental changes in ICT training in pre-service teacher education. The project consists of three main components:

• Develop national professional standards for teachers and integrate them into curricula (AITSL, 2011).
• Produce high-quality digital resources for teachers and students that are specifically linked to the Australian Curriculum (Romeo et al., 2012).
• Build sustainable professional networks and share experiences & resources between institutions (Romeo et al., 2012:951).

             The TTF project is seen as a unique opportunity to create lasting change in ICT education in Australia. It seeks to develop a shared and integrated view of the use of technology in the classroom (Romeo et al., 2012). The TTF project is based on the TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) framework, which emphasises the interaction between content and pedagogical & technological knowledge. This framework helps teachers to integrate technology effectively into their teaching (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). The TTF project is being continuously evaluated and initial results indicate that pre-service teachers have increased their confidence in using technology and improved understanding of the applications of technology in learning process (Romeo et al., 2012). The project is seen as a catalyst for wider change in Australian education, helping to create a digital learning culture in schools. The ICT curriculum in Australia, through the TTF project, seeks to create sustainable and effective changes in teacher education. The project is recognized as a successful model in technology education globally, with an emphasis on integrating technology into the curriculum and developing national standards (Romeo et al., 2012).

          Finland

          Digitalization has been on the school agenda for many years, and one of the main goals of the Finnish government between 2015 and 2019 was to increase the use of technology in learning process. In the meantime, the public discussion about new teaching and learning technologies has mainly focused on the needs of future working life or training of digital skills for teachers (Nikula, 2020). In addition, there have been criticisms about the negative effects of using technological devices, such as increased screen time and reduced ability to concentrate (Nikula, Järvinen, & Laiho, 2020). Some have claimed that today's youth are so accustomed to technology that they are "born with a chip" and suffer from culture shock if the learning environment is devoid of technology (Berg, 2009: 3). In Finland, technology is strongly emphasized in learning, and curricula are designed to strengthen students' problem-solving and critical thinking skills (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2020). Teachers encourage students from an early age to use ICT, a path they will continue as citizens of the “Digital Society” in adulthood. While this approach is common in many schools and teachers, it should be noted that teachers’ attitudes towards the use of ICT vary. Most teachers are enthusiastic about using new innovations such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) in their teaching, but at the same time there are those who are reluctant to use it in their teaching (Toivonen et al,. 2020). Technology topics are included in only a few school subjects in the Finnish national basic education curriculum (Metsärinne et al., 2024). The focus on technology in science lessons are mostly focused on information and communication technology and media skills. In addition, production and evaluation technology are particularly important in the subject of “Handicrafts” (Leinonen & Salonen, 2024; Niiranen et al., 2022). Therefore, to properly understand technology education, it is necessary to consider it within the context of the handicrafts lesson (Niiranen et al., 2021; Niiranen et al., 2022). This subject area should take the main responsibility for ensuring that all students in the Finnish basic education system learn technology systematically (Rasinen et al., 2011). Technology education is actually considered equivalent to “technical handicrafts” (Kananoja, 2009), and its integration with Sloyd Education – which is called handicraft education in the Nordic countries – is considered as a possible approach in Finnish handicraft education (Peltonen, 2009).

            Malaysia

            Malaysia is the first developing Islamic country to successfully establish an ICT-based framwork within its educational system in 1996. The Malaysian Smart School System pursues five main objectives, which include ensuring the overall development of individual, providing opportunities to enhance individual strengths & abilities, developing a thoughtful workforce, delivering education in a democratic process, and increasing stakeholder participation in the education process. In general, in Malaysia, the government aims to invest in ICT-led education in schools and maintain support for this movement and equip all schools with this system by 2030 (UNESCO, 2019). The long-term vision of the Malaysian Technology Plan for 2030 provides a good representation of the theoretical underpinnings for the development of a technology education curriculum in education (Belawati, et al, 2018). The Malaysian Ministry of Education sees the use of technology in curricula as a tool to transform learning and produce more technical programs, improve teaching methods, and empower learners. This orientation indicates that the technology education curriculum is being transformed to produce a new generation that is adaptable to technology and capable of the information explosion (Harris & Kington, 2002). In addition, the technology curriculum, especially in rural schools, aims to reduce the educational gap and provide equal educational opportunities. These initiatives demonstrate Malaysia’s comprehensive approach to implementing technology in education, which simultaneously improves the quality of learning and expands educational equity across the country.

USA

              In United States schools, ICT curricula seek to promote programming-oriented thinking in students rather than training them to be programmers. The core of ICT education is “computational thinking” . Computational thinking refers to a way of solving problems, designing systems, and understanding human behavior that draws on a variety of concepts. The technology curriculum in American secondary schools is significantly influenced by the integration of information and communication technology (ICT), which is recognized as a key element for improving the quality of education (Goldhaber et al., 2021). ICT integration helps teachers replace traditional teaching methods with technology-based educational tools, which leads to increased student engagement & knowledge retention (Goldhaber et al., 2021). The educational goals of this program include enabling learners to analyze and evaluate media, understand its social & cultural impacts, and develop the skills necessary for content production (Fedorov, 2001). In general, the technology curriculum is recognized as a key tool for preparing students for life in the modern digital world.

           Stage 3: Juxtaposition

           Australia:in particular has a strong focus on developing information & communication technology (ICT) skills, and considers the use of advanced digital tools and blended learning as part of its education strategies

            Finland: focuses on expansion  of education, but differs from other countries in terms of its traditional structure and emphasis on new technologies (such as augmented reality).

             Malaysia : compared to other countries, Malaysia is trying to reduce educational gaps by focusing on improving access to technology in rural areas. The country specifically emphasizes the use of technology to enhance capabilities of teachers & students.

             United States: has a very diverse and innovative education program in the field of technology, with a significant focus on advanced digital tools and distance learning.

Table 1. Description of ICT curriculum in selected educational systems

           At the juxtaposition level, there are significant similarities between the four countries, given that all countries are using educational technologies. In particular, they emphasize digital skills training & advanced technologies (such as AR and Simulation Software). However, there are also differences in how these programs are implemented. For example, while Malaysia emphasizes technology development in rural areas and bridging the digital divide, Finland emphasizes personalized and project-based education. Australia and the United States also specifically use online and blended learning methods, while Malaysia focuses more on the use of new software systems and equipment for teaching. These similarities and differences specifically affect how students in the four countries are taught and learned. At this stage, the analysis of the situation in different countries shows that each of them has adopted different approaches to technology education in secondary schools, according to their specific circumstances and based on society’s needs and available technology.

Table 2: Juxtaposition of ICT curriculum elements in selected countries

          Stage Four: Comparison

This section discusses the similarities and differences in the ICT curriculum in the countries studied.

Table 3: Similarities and differences in ICT curriculum in the selected countries

Similarities and differences:

• Educational objectives

Similarities: All countriesemphasize practical and applied skills, critical thinking, and fostering creativity in the field of technology.

Differences: a)Finland places a particular emphasis on preparing for the future world of work, while other countries have less emphasis on this ; and b) Malaysia focuses more on ethical issues in technology.

• Educational content

Similarities: Teaching IT concepts, programming, and cybersecurity is common among selected countries. Also, teaching technical and engineering concepts (algorithms & programming) and new IOT technologies (artificial intelligence) is present in all countries.

Differences: a)The USA places more emphasis on the applications of technology in the field of environmental issues , and b) Malaysia focuses more on ethical and social concepts in technology.

            In overall there are similarities in seven components among the selected countries such as an emphasis on practical and project-based learning, training in new technologies, and continuous assessment and there are clear differences between countries in four components. These differences are mainly evident in the degree of emphasis on specific issues such as ethics in technology, training in social skills, and use of standardized exams.

4. Conclusion

               Accordings to the main findings of research all countries emphasize the development of digital skills, computational thinking, and technological literacy. While Finland and Australia emphasize the integration of technology with other subjects, the United States focuses more on the application of technology in STEM. Malaysia’s approach also focuses on bridging the digital divide and using new technologies to enhance learning. The findings of present research are in significant agreement with the findings of previous studies. Similar to what was observed in the selected educational systems, Estigoy (2021) confirms that the extent of technology use in education depends on the readiness of teachers. Sun et al. (2024) also emphasize the importance of the way technology is used in developing high-level scientific thinking skills, which has also been emphasized in the Finnish and Australian educational systems. Also, Rezaei et al. (2022) showed that the goal of STEM programs in advanced countries is to prepare a skilled workforce for the 21st century. The findings of the present study on the United States and Australia also confirm this issue. In addition, Niiranen et al. (2022) have pointed out the need to redefine the position of the technology curriculum in Finland, which is consistent with the findings of this study on the lack of coherence of some approaches in this country. Ajit et al. (2022) also raised challenges related to facilities, teacher knowledge and student perceptions in Malaysia, which are in line with the findings of the present study. Hardy et al. (2019) pointed out the challenges of integrating extracurricular programs with local digital technology programs in Australia, which are in line with the findings of the present study. Starkey and Finger (2018) emphasized the challenges of equitable access to digital technologies for teachers & students, which in the findings of this study is particularly true for Malaysia. Based on the findings, it can be concluded that each country has a different approach to technology education depending on the level of economic development, labor market needs, and educational policies. Finland, with its emphasis on collaborative learning and digital competencies, has a more flexible model that allows for the integration of technology into different subjects. Australia, with its focus on engineering and programming skills, tries to cultivate students’ computational thinking. The United States prepares students for the jobs of the future by emphasizing the relevance of technology education to the labor market and STEM fields, and Malaysia strives to achieve educational equity in technology by reducing the digital divide.  Based on the research findings, the following suggestions are made:

• Other countries can benefit from the Finnish and Australian approach to integrating technology with creative thinking skills
• Using tools such as augmented reality, machine learning, and the Internet of Things in curricula can improve the quality of technology education
• Professional training of teachers is essential for the effective use of technology in teaching.
• Curricula should be designed to suit the rapid technological developments.
• Providing technology infrastructure in underserved areas can help with educational equity.