1. Introduction

Teacher education is a critical and influential domain within higher education systems worldwide. It plays a pivotal role in reforming and strengthening the foundations of national development (Cochran-Smith & Keefe, 2022). As societies become increasingly complex, educational systems must place a greater emphasis on the significance of teacher preparation. Variations in teacher education processes and approaches can significantly enhance the quality of overall education systems. The quality of an education system is contingent upon the quality of its teachers, and teacher education bears the responsibility of ensuring this quality (Rust,2019).Since teacher education is one of the key factors for success in educational systems, a comparative study can help educational policymakers formulate more effective policies and programs aimed at enhancing the teaching profession. This not only leads to the improvement of education quality but also increases the attractiveness of the teaching profession (Cochran-Smith, 2021).

          Research indicates the necessity of paying attention to the topic of teachers and teacher education, as well as acquiring any competencies, qualifications, and skills aimed at improving the classroom (Altan & Alkan 2023). Awareness of the various experiences of different countries regarding teacher education will illuminate pathways for utilizing their experiences to foster growth and development in the education system of any countryDeveloped countries have prepared programs and activities to confront these changes and have made transformations within their teacher education programs. Regardless of the diverse structures of teacher education in global experiences, various approaches have been developed for teacher training and the creation of an ideal teacher. These approaches are determined based on the conditions of the educational, cultural, and even political systems of different countries, ultimately leading to an accepted framework and requirements regarding the concept of the ideal teacher.

           These models can serve as a reference for reviewing and reforming existing teacher education systems in developing countries. Teacher education approaches shape and define the teacher's identity and role. Kitchen and Petrarca (2016) have identified approaches such as theory-oriented teacher education, practice-oriented teacher education, integrated teacher education, and ultimately, reflection-oriented teacher education. Munthe & Rogne (2015) has also outlined approaches such as research-based teacher education, collaborative teacher education, and reflective education, considering the competencies and qualifications sought by governments and teacher education institutions.Teacher education for the future is closely intertwined with philosophical goals, politics, social and cultural issues, and epistemological understandings. Initial teacher preparation is often accompanied by turbulence, crises in teacher identity, a lack of confidence, and a limited sense of agency (Buchanan et al.,2013; Pietsch & Williamson, 2010; Schaefer, 2013). Teachers encounter many obstacles in their professional journey, and reflective practices are a tool to help mitigate them (Khine & Liu, 2022).

           The reflective approach, which leads to the development of reflective teachers, is a well-known approach in teacher education. Reflective practice refers to the time when individuals think about what they do, why they do it, and how they do it (Farrell & Kennedy, 2019). Given the constantly changing dynamics of teaching experiences and learner interactions, this process of inquiry is vital for all teachers to understand themselves and their practices.

            The reflective teacher is a product of the uncertainty and complex environments of today's world (Amani, 2015) and is highly context-dependent and socially situated. Reflective teachers are consciously aware of their reasoning for their actions and can act with greater confidence when faced with a sudden or difficult situation (Brookfield, 2017); it is on this basis that reflection can guide teachers during challenging times they may experience in their profession.Since the 1980, reflective practice has been considered as part of an international movement to reform education and improve the quality of teaching and has been made mandatory in many university teacher education programs. In Iran, The document of the macro curriculum design of teacher education (2016), following the establishment of the Farhangian University, was developed and based on the mentioned competencies, considers the "reflective teacher" as a fundamental value.

            Teachers are considered as reflective practitioners, and their reflection before, during, and after action is emphasized; meaning that pre-service teachers engage in rethinking their decisions and actions in the classroom. The perception of the teaching profession and the orientation of teachers' identities with fundamental and core values and competencies has been a concern of teacher education systems worldwide. Social orientations, cultural roots, and political systems of countries can influence the dimensions and relevant standards of teachers (Kitchen & Petrarca, 2016).

            Despite the use of reflective teaching and its growing popularity since the  1990s, this educational model is rich in theory but very complex in practice (Schwab 1970). The performance of the teacher education system in our country is lacking adequate efficiency; as the output of the education system has not been equipped with the necessary competencies and has always been criticized (Rafiei & Abdollahi, 2023).Despite more than a decade of teacher education centered around the reflective teacher, novice teachers have faced serious challenges, and the current curriculum has not been able to develop the desired underlying competencies in novice teachers (Sohbatlo, 2022). In the early years of teaching, creativity and desirable transformation gradually fade, and the teacher's identity is forgotten. Students have not acquired the necessary practical skills and have mainly engaged in trial and error and acted subjectively in the educational process (Asare, Bahari & Arabi., 2019).

          This research, by examining the experiences of countries that have implemented curricula centered around the reflective teacher at the core of their teacher education systems, seeks to compare the dimensions of the reflective teacher across countries. Through this comparison, the strengths and weaknesses of the interpretation of the reflective teacher in Iran's teacher education system will be identified and explained. Moreover, this research aims to provide practical solutions to improve the teacher education system in order to achieve the fundamental value of the reflective teacher.

           A review of the literature reveals that most domestic studies on teacher education have primarily focused on its structural aspects, with little attention paid to the approaches employed in teacher education systems, comparative studies, and critical analysis in light of global experiences. For instance, studies by Mousapour (2019), Asare, Bahari, and Arabi (2019), Zare, Parsa, and Safaye Moghaddam (2016), Mehrmohammadi (2013), and others have primarily examined the structure of teacher education programs. In contrast, studies such as those by Zarabi, Ghorni, and Yamrali (2023), Sohbatlo (2022), Abedini et al. (2021), Shamshiri (2017), Khoshgoftar Moghaddam and Ahsani, Zarei and Seyed Hosseini (2016), have focused on designing and validating specific topics or models.

             In these types of studies, a portion of the teacher education curriculum is redesigned based on the variable of interest. Some other studies, such as those conducted by Rahmati and Karimi (2022), Jafarian and Mahmoudi (2019), Ahmadi and Elahiyan (2021), Ahmadi et al. (2019), and Adib et al. (2017), have solely focused on practical experiences and have revised and redesigned the content of courses. In the realm of comparative studies, research by Motamedi (2024), solgi (2023), Pasalari, Azizi, and Gholami (2022), and Haghverdi et al. (2019) have compared and examined aspects of the teacher education system such as student teacher recruitment methods, curriculum content, and the overall system. It can be argued that attention to the approaches employed in teacher education systems has been overlooked.

            A review of international studies, including those by Farrell and Macapinlac (2021) and Hauerwas, Gomez-Barreto, and Fernández  (2023), has revealed that given the complexities of modern societies, teacher education curricula need to be revised and updated based on reflective approaches.Choy, Dinham, Yim, and Williams (2021), in a comparative study of initial teacher education and reflective practice in Australia and Malaysia, found that the meaning and application of reflection vary across Western and Eastern Asian cultures. These differences manifest in various dimensions such as reflective teaching, self-assessment, and methods of improving teaching. McGarr and Emstad (2022) in their study entitled 'A Comparison of Discourses of Reflective Practice in Teacher Education Policies in Ireland and Norway' argue that while reflective teachers are a product of both Irish and Norwegian teacher education systems, the reasons for their existence differ. In Ireland, reflective teachers are valued in and of themselves, and are primarily based on self-assessment processes. However, in Norway, the history of teacher education has situated reflective practice within the school context, linking reflection to interaction. This different semantic horizon governs other components and themes influencing the processes of teacher education systems in both countries. Florian and Camedda (2020), in a study titled "Support for Enhancing Teacher Education," examined individual competencies, identity, and personal beliefs regarding the issue of teacher education. They stated that educational systems are continuously changing, and the challenges facing teachers and how to prepare them to address various aspects have led many European countries to reform teacher education policies. Mooney Simmie and Edling (2018), in a study titled "A Critical Discourse of Teacher Education Policies in Ireland and Sweden," critically examined the policies governing teacher education curruculum and claimed that the needs of the world are rapidly changing what is considered legitimate knowledge and values in schools, thereby creating a new understanding of the role of teachers. Their research findings deemed it essential to make fundamental changes in the discourse of teacher education curricula and referenced the social and democratic responsibilities of teachers as core concepts.

           A comparative study of teacher education systems across different countries is one of the most critical research tools for understanding, analyzing, and improving educational processes and human resource development. Such studies aim to identify the strengths and weaknesses of various systems, facilitating the exchange of experiences, the development of models, and the creation of innovative approaches to teacher education. A review of previous studies on teacher education suggests that a critical comparative analysis of the reflective teacher approach in Iran's teacher education system, in comparison with global experiences, has not been adequately addressed. Existing research has tended to focus on the structure and policies of teacher education, or has taken a reductionist and partial view of the curriculum and competencies of teachers in practice.

           The lack of a comprehensive and holistic perspective, as well as the absence of alternative viewpoints, is a notable issue in Iran's teacher education system. Creating a framework for comparing and contrasting the reflective teacher approach in global teacher education systems can illuminate new horizons for teacher education in Iran. This will broaden new perspectives and create new conditions for future teachers, ensuring the quality of Iran's education system. Conversely, neglecting this issue can lead to the continuation of short-term decisions and emotional reactions within the teacher education system, jeopardizing the identity of teachers.

2. Research Method

This research employs a comparative approach, and the necessary information regarding the curriculum of teacher education in the countries under study was gathered through a search in documents, resources, records, research reports, and notably, national curriculum documents for teacher education and reputable research articles. The comparative techniques were based on the four stages delineated by Bereday (1969), which include description, interpretation, juxtaposition, and comparison. In the description stage, discussions related to policies and curriculum of teacher education in selected countries were examined based on documents, research reports, and both domestic and international articles. Significant events in teacher education for each country were revisited and described. In the interpretation stage, the information obtained from the first stage was analyzed, and the extracted themes were considered as the main components for analysis. The third step, adjacency, led to the presentation of a framework for comparing similarities and differences based on the information from the previous two stages. In the comparison stage, the final results were extracted and represented based on the extent of teacher competencies in the teacher education curricula of the countries and their comparisons. In this study, among the countries that participated in international assessments such as TIMSS, PIRLS, and PISA, achieving significant ranks or being classified as advanced educational systems according to OECD criteria, three countries— the United States, Finland, and Japan—were purposefully selected for study and comparison with Iran. Each of these countries can represent other neighboring countries with similar cultural and technological characteristics.

3. Findings

A) Description

Finland

Recruitment Type: Teacher recruitment in Finland primarily occurs through standardized assessments. Applicants must hold a master's degree and demonstrate their practical and theoretical skills during the selection process. The recruitment process is designed to ensure that only individuals with high competencies and strong motivation enter the teaching profession.

           Curriculum: Teacher education curricula in Finland are based on scientific research and educational theories. These programs include a combination of theoretical courses in educational psychology, sociology of education, and teaching methods, along with practical training in real schools. Trained teachers acquire the necessary skills to face practical challenges, while also gaining expertise in specialized fields such as special education, educational technology, and the arts (Lavonen, 2020).

           Duration of the Program: The duration of teacher training in Finland is typically 5 years, culminating in a master's degree. This approach signifies a commitment to deep and comprehensive education throughout the study period, preparing teachers for the job market. During this time, students not only gain theoretical knowledge but also engage in practical experiences and internships that contribute to their professional growth.

          Preparation Programs: Teacher preparation programs in Finland include internships and continuous supervision of teaching performance. In these programs, future teachers actively work in classrooms, enhancing their skills and refining their teaching methods through ongoing feedback. These programs also help teachers familiarize themselves with real classroom conditions and learn from actual experiences.

            Credentials: The required credential for teaching in Finland is a master's degree, which must be obtained from one of Finland's reputable universities. These credentials indicate teachers' academic and practical capabilities in various educational fields and serve as a standard criterion for their acceptance in the country’s educational system. Teaching certificates in Finland generally require completion of various stages, including theoretical and practical training, as well as standardized assessments. After graduation and obtaining a master's degree, teachers must fulfill the requirements specific to the region or area in order to obtain a special teaching certificate. These certificates are considered the official authorization for teaching in Finnish schools, obliging teachers to adhere to relevant professional standards (Saloviita, 2020).

Figure 1: Teacher Education System in Finland

Iran

Recruitment Type: The recruitment of students for teacher training courses in Iran usually occurs through the national entrance examination (Konkur). Candidates must participate in a competitive entrance exam organized by the National Organization for Educational Testing. This exam includes both general and specialized subjects, and based on their scores, students are admitted to Farhangian University and other teacher training institutions (Statute of Farhangian University, 2016).

              Curriculum: The curriculum for teacher training in Iran is designed to provide both theoretical education and practical skills. These programs include theoretical courses in areas such as educational psychology, the philosophy of education, classroom management, and teaching methods. Additionally, practical courses, such as internships, allow students to gain real experience in educational environments.

              Duration of the Program: The duration of teacher training programs in Iran is typically four years, culminating in a bachelor's degree. During this time, students are required to complete a set number of coursework units and practical discussions.

             Credentials: The required qualification for teaching in Iranian schools is generally a bachelor's degree in fields related to education. After graduation, teachers must participate in recruitment exams organized by the Ministry of Education. If they pass these exams, they are officially hired as teachers. Unlike some other educational systems, teaching certificates in Iran are not a formal requirement; passing the recruitment exam and completing the necessary courses and units lead to employment.

Figure 2: Teacher Education System in Iran

     Japan

Recruitment Type: The teacher recruitment process in Japan is characterized by relatively high competition. Applicants seeking admission to universities and teacher training institutions must participate in competitive entrance examinations. These exams include various sections covering general knowledge, mathematics, science, and language, reflecting the academic abilities and educational talents of the candidates. Upon acceptance, students are assigned to specialized teacher training programs based on their academic criteria and previous education.

             Curriculum: Teacher education programs in Japan comprise a combination of theoretical and practical training. These programs include theoretical courses related to educational psychology, the history and philosophy of education, and advanced teaching methods. Additionally, during practical training, students work under the supervision of experienced teachers in real classroom settings to strengthen their teaching skills. The emphasis on active learning and interaction in these courses enhances teachers' academic and practical capabilities (Yamasaki, 2016).

              Duration of the Program: The duration of teacher training in Japan typically spans four years, culminating in a bachelor’s degree in fields related to education and teaching. In some cases, teachers may be required to pursue postgraduate studies and obtain a master's degree. This duration entails completing various coursework units and practical experiences in schools, preparing individuals in a specialized manner for the job market. Teacher preparation programs in Japan include continuous and ongoing internship opportunities. These programs help future teachers gain practical experiences in real educational environments. Under the supervision of experienced instructors, they learn to address real challenges in classrooms and develop teaching methods tailored to the needs of learners.

Credentials: The required qualification for teaching in the Japanese educational system is generally a bachelor’s degree in relevant fields of education. After graduation, teachers must go through several stages to obtain a teaching certificate, which includes national examinations and adherence to professional standards. These credentials ensure the educational competence of the teacher and their ability to instruct effectively. Teaching certificates in Japan are subject to national laws and standards, issued based on the various stages of teacher training and relevant evaluations. Teachers must participate in national examinations after obtaining their bachelor's degree and then take steps to acquire teaching certification aligned with their educational qualifications. These certificates serve as official, recognized documentation for teaching in Japanese schools and require teachers to adhere to professional practices and engage in continuous learning (Yamanaka & Suzuki, 2020).

Figure 3: Teacher Education System in Japan

USA

Recruitment Type: Teacher recruitment in the United States generally occurs through two main channels. The primary pathway involves obtaining a bachelor's or master's degree in fields related to education. Meanwhile, the alternative pathway allows candidates to undergo an intensive and short-term training program to obtain teaching certificates. This diversity in teacher recruitment helps meet the various needs of schools and cater to the diversity of learners.

           Curriculum: Teacher education curricula in the United States are designed to incorporate a combination of educational theories, educational psychology, and practical strategies. These programs typically include foundational courses in various subjects, teaching methods, and hands-on experience. Additionally, teacher training addresses specific subject areas such as science, mathematics, language and literature, and the arts, which helps establish the necessary expertise to meet students' needs.

              Duration of the Program: The duration of teacher education programs in the United States typically ranges from 4 to 5 years, encompassing undergraduate studies and practical courses. In most states, teachers wishing to teach at higher levels (high school) may be required to pursue additional education.

            Teacher Preparation Programs: Teacher preparation programs in the United States are designed under the supervision of state and national educational bodies. These programs typically include training related to professional development, practical internships in classrooms, and educational areas such as classroom management and the use of modern educational technologies. These initiatives prepare teachers to enter educational environments and face challenges (Imig, Wiseman & Imig, 2016).

             Credentials: Teacher education credentials in the United States generally consist of a bachelor's degree in fields related to education, along with a teaching certificate issued by state educational bodies. Teaching certificates in the United States are regarded as indicators of professional identity and teachers' competence. These certificates are typically divided into three categories: temporary certificates, permanent certificates, and certificates for teaching specific subjects (such as special education). Each state establishes its own requirements for issuing these certificates, which include passing examinations and completing internship courses (Jenset, Klette & Hammerness, 2018).

Figure 4: Teacher Education System in the United States of America

B) Interpretation

In this section, based on available resources and documents, the fundamental value of a reflective teacher and its components in teacher training curricula of various countries are examined in comparison with Iran. In other words, what follows is the result of extensive research and exploration of both domestic and foreign sources. It is noteworthy that this study aims to elucidate the fundamental values and approach to reflective teacher education through the necessary competencies and qualifications present in the teacher training programs of various countries. After analysis and summarization, a final table comparing the extent of utilization of the dimensions of the reflective teacher approach will be presented concisely in the concluding section.

Meaning and Level of Reflection

Finland: In Finland's teacher education system, reflective approaches are rooted in a research-oriented framework. Lifelong learning ensures the future of Finnish teachers. Accordingly, the use of reflection is evident in the personal growth and professional competence of teachers. In teacher education, educators must respond to the teaching and learning processes in the classroom by utilizing personal and collaborative reflections to improve these processes. Teachers should explore what type of teaching approach is most appropriate, how to create effective assessments, and how to foster a conducive environment among students of different genders and subcultures. Thus, the levels of reflection in Finland's teacher training system are focused on the teaching and learning process, aiming at the professional development of teachers (Aspfors & Eklund, 2017).

           Iran: With the presence of Farhangian University and a coherent teacher training system, the reflective teacher concept forms the core of teacher education curriculum. This approach has led to changes and reforms in curriculum content, introducing courses such as action research, lesson study, and professional practice. According to the framework design document for the teacher education system (2016), reflection in Iran's teacher education system signifies utilizing tools and processes for the improvement of professional learning development. In other words, technical reflection is currently taking place within the teacher education curriculum in Iran.

          Japan: Despite significant tensions and changes in recent years, the foundation of Japan's teacher education system is based on reflective practice. Schools in Japan function as learning communities, where collaboration among teachers is prioritized. Reforms in schools as learning communities are intertwined with teacher reflections. The school system, promoting the slogan "no teacher left behind," focuses on the professional development of teachers. It can be said that the levels of reflection in Japan's teacher education system are geared towards collaborative reflection. Establishing school-centered learning communities and teacher participation fosters a reflective atmosphere and the utilization of experiences. This reflection can encompass curriculum, assessment, policies, and school regulations (Yoshida & Narumi,2024).

           United States: Despite the widespread presence of teacher training institutions across different states, the incorporation of reflective practices is clearly evident. Evidence suggests that the meaning of reflection in the U.S. teacher education system is associated with critical reading and the social and political engagement of teachers in extracurricular events. In other words, reflection is not limited to classroom teaching and behaviors; it seeks to challenge pre-established assumptions through critical insight. If teachers cannot recognize past biases, they cannot properly assess the needs of their students. Teacher training institutions aim to foster critical reflection to move beyond classroom learning and achieve desirable educational outcomes, ultimately leading to teacher agency and empowerment (Myers, Smith & Tesar,2017).

Reflective Teaching

Finland: The peak of reflective approaches in Finland’s teacher education system is the use of reflective teaching. Reflection on the circumstances and factors affecting teaching, including strategies, methods, classroom management, and assessment of students, can lead to constructive and desirable decisions by teachers. Utilizing research based on real classroom circumstances and student conditions, along with innovation and relevance to technology in the curriculum, forms the basis of reflective teaching in Finland's teacher education system (Tiainen & Korkeamäki, 2018).

          Iran: In the curriculum of Iran's teacher education system, reflective teaching is not a subject of focus. The separation of theoretical courses and practical training (internships) in schools has left the challenges and realities of the field unaddressed, making it difficult for student teachers to engage in reflection and contemplation based on teaching and classroom processes. This primarily results in the surprise of novice teachers when initially confronting classrooms. The classrooms within Iran's teacher education system lack reflection and contemplation, effectively providing no suitable opportunity for student teachers to analyze and critique classroom teaching processes (Saafi, 2019).

        Japan: Emphasis on the central role of collaborative learning (CL) within Japan’s reflective approach to teacher education primarily encompasses reflection and reconsideration before practice. This means that teachers engage in collaborative analysis of situations and challenges, exchanging experiences and ideas, which refines their personal insights and prepares them for classroom engagement. Japan’s teacher education system facilitates student teachers’ interaction and participation through teachers’ narratives and the establishment of professional development hubs, such as lesson study (Kim et al., 2021).

         United States: Considering the role of teachers in the development and implementation of curricular programs and utilizing a decentralized and semi-centralized education system, teacher education programs in institutions value creativity, innovation, the emergence of novel ideas, and imaginative engagement. In the U.S. teacher education system, this practice is not limited to existing processes; rather, student teachers respond to standards and criteria critically and strive to improve processes and instruction. In other words, reflective teaching in the U.S. teacher education system goes beyond teachers contemplating during practice and engaging with the teaching situation; it challenges frameworks, assumptions, documents, and regulations while remaining active and responsive toward them (Darling-Hammond, 2020).

Reflective Tools

Finland: Research is considered the most important tool in Finland’s teacher education system with a reflective approach. In Finland, research is not merely an academic endeavor grounded in assumptions and theoretical discussions; rather, it is rooted in the processes of teaching and learning based on real classroom experiences. The use of tools such as virtual teaching, artificial intelligence, media, interactive networks, and comparative studies provides a basis for reflection and research, facilitating lifelong learning. Moreover, the curricular content of the teacher education system is intertwined with elements such as observation, inquiry, thinking, exploration, experimentation, and reasoning, which foster rethinking and the growth of student teachers.

        Iran: Practicum serves as the practical and field-based component of the curriculum in Iran's teacher education system, accompanied by reflective observation. Student teachers, while attending classrooms and benefiting from experienced teachers, utilize reflective observation and reconsideration to document their classroom experiences. In in-person class sessions, they engage in critique and discussion with peers and instructors. Additionally, during their teacher training period, students can enhance their reflective practice by participating in extracurricular activities such as conferences and workshops (document of the macro curriculum design of teacher education, 2016)

         Japan: The increased working hours for teachers in Japan's educational system, along with the profound social, political, and economic changes affecting this system, have prompted a special focus on teacher burnout within the teacher education system. The expansion of classrooms and social and professional environments in schools, utilizing reflective tools such as lesson study and action research, is considered one of the functions of collaborative reflective approaches in Japan's teacher education system. The use of images and videos from experienced teachers' classrooms, coupled with student engagement and critique, is one of the central resources for enhancing reflection among student teachers (Takahashi 2020).

         United States: Considering the nature of reflection and the use of critical reading in the teacher education system in the United States, it can be said that any tools that facilitate and enhance the reflection and thinking of student teachers are employed. Consequently, in the curricula of most U.S. teacher education institutions, topics such as self-narrative writing, ethnographic research, case studies, and judgment analyses are included. Emphasis on self-awareness and understanding of capacities and limitations, assumptions, and biases forms the basis of student teachers' reflections. Additionally, in the U.S. teacher education system, the utilization of critical analyses concerning cultural issues, such as political topics, racial minorities, and immigrants, serves as significant tools for reflection and thinking about the education system specifically and broader state and national issues generally (Rodgers, 2020).

 Role of Teacher Educators

Finland: In Finland, the role of teacher educators in the teacher education system resembles that of a research collaborator. Real classroom issues and teaching-learning processes are examined, creating opportunities for projects that involve the participation of both student teachers and teacher educators. Moreover, teacher educators in Finland also have a coaching role. Through the use of open-ended questions, they help individuals become aware of their values, assumptions, and expectations, as well as their choices and issues. The goal of coaching in the teacher education system is to provide conditions and procedures that lead to reflection and its utilization. Essentially, what is important in coaching is the enhancement of problem-solving skills, which ultimately addresses the challenges and issues related to practice (Yoshida & Narumi 2024).

          Iran: In Iran's teacher education system, teacher educators are primarily experienced and retired educators. They serve as behavioral role models for student teachers. However, in Iran's teacher education system, reflective approaches from teacher educators are not prioritized, with the focus solely on their knowledge and experience (Abolmaali Aali, 2019).

          Japan: In Japan, the interaction between teacher educators and student teachers is extensive and profound. Teacher educators supervise and guide their students through the learning processes. Their feedback and evaluation are clinical and occur in real-time during classes and micro-teaching sessions alongside the reflections of student teachers (Thurston, 2015).

          United States: The role of teacher educators in teacher education in the United States is multifaceted and critical for the preparation and development of student teachers. Teacher educators play a significant role in designing and implementing reflective curriculum to prepare student teachers. This includes defining the content, structure, and educational approaches that align with departmental standards and broader pedagogical practices. Additionally, teacher educators assist in the development of student teachers' professional identities and prepare them for real teaching experiences (Cochran-Smith et al, 2021).

Reflective Assessment

Finland: In Finland, the student teachers' engagement with the elements of the teaching-learning process is emphasized. The use of portfolios, self-assessment, and observation of student teaching scenarios can indicate their readiness for classroom engagement. Analyzing critical and challenging events through reflection and exploring alternative solutions using creativity showcases the level of reflection among student teachers and their utilization of reflective practices (Säntti & Salminen, 2015).

         Iran: In the Iran teacher education system, reflective assessment is not a focal point. Although reflective courses such as internships or professional development research are included in the curriculum, the assessment of these courses is not based on reflection and is merely rooted in technical views based on attendance and written examinations. Student teachers can enter schools after completing teacher education courses and obtaining equivalent university degrees. Although there is mention in the Farhangian University’s charter regarding teaching certificates and the assessment of professional qualifications following the completion of student teachers’ studies, in practice, this has not been realized due to a lack of human resources and necessary infrastructure (Mohammadi, 2020).

          Japan: In Japan, the reflective process of student teachers is primarily evaluated through peer observations. Collaborative observations allow student teachers, professors, and peers to assess the actions, activities, and decisions made by students, thus indicating their status in professional development as teachers. Moreover, participation in reflective discussions can determine the level of reflection and thought among student teachers. Engaging in reflective conversations with mentors or colleagues provides opportunities to uncover challenges and successes in teaching practice. These discussions can lead to practical insights for improvement (Katsuno, 2016).

          United States: In the teacher education system of the United States, this type of assessment includes several methods and techniques that help teachers continuously reflect on and become aware of their practice. The overall status of student teachers, indicating their capacity as teachers in the classroom, is considered essential. The use of portfolios is one of the most common indicators for student teachers. Reflective journals, which include writings about experiences, challenges, and successes of student teachers, can serve as a solid foundation for feedback and improvement of educational programs. Additionally, self-assessment holds significance in the American teacher education system. Student teachers must continuously expose themselves to the critique of others and be aware of their biases. Critical reflection begins within oneself and then encompasses the external environment.

C) Juxtaposition

An examination of the countries studied concerning the utilization of reflective approaches in teacher education systems reveals that the fundamental value of a reflective teacher is evident in most components and themes of these approaches. In other words, the overall teacher education system is intertwined with the promotion of the fundamental value of a reflective teacher, and efforts have been made to leverage every opportunity to foster critical thinking and improve the reflection of student teachers.

          However, despite the claims of Iran's teacher education system being based on the fundamental value of a reflective teacher, in practice, it remains ineffective in the executable components and lacks the efficacy and expansion of reflective teaching. This disconnect highlights significant deficiencies in the infrastructure, curriculum design, and evaluation methods of the country's educational system. Therefore, there is an urgent need to reassess and reform the existing structures within the teacher education system to create an environment that not only acknowledges fundamental values but also facilitates the development of critical thinking and professional growth among teachers.

          This comparison among countries can serve as a model for improving the educational landscape in Iran, identifying strengths and weaknesses in each educational system to enhance the quality of teacher training.

 Table 1: Comparison of the components and themes of reflective teacher in the studied countries

D) Comparison

Iran's teacher education system has undergone diverse and varied changes both structurally and in terms of paradigms and approaches. Each dimension of these changes has been shaped and moderated in relation to educational, cultural, social, religious, and even political issues. The complexity of societies and the teaching-learning process necessitates the understanding that a single point should not be considered as the ultimate destination for a teacher. Teachers' identities must be continuously developed, improved, and regenerated in a cycle of recreation. The goal of the reflective teacher is lifelong learning, whereby the teacher continually identifies their weaknesses and gaps and seeks to address them. It is based on this that most teacher education systems have moved towards the reflective teacher model. Subsequently, the similarities and differences among the studied countries are compared in line with the reflective teacher approach:

           Although the emphasis on the meaning of reflection has differed among all four countries studied, the goal of utilizing the reflective approach in these countries is to achieve "becoming a lifelong learner," which serves as the common objective of all examined teacher education systems. The choice of the level and meaning of reflection can vary based on the requirements of teacher education and the dissemination of each country's macro-policies, a distinction that was clearly evident among the studied countries. Although reflective action and the use of reflective teaching as the heart of teaching-learning processes were evident in the United States, Japan, and Finland, this important aspect lacked a clear position in Iran's teacher education system. Reflective teaching requires the use of reflective tools. Anything that facilitates reflection and rethinking among student teachers and creates a reflective space in the teaching-learning process can be considered a tool for facilitating reflection. In the United States, Finland, and Japan, efforts have been made to utilize various reflective tools, with an emphasis on critical reflection, self-awareness, and consciousness. Japan and Iran employ content-based tools such as lesson study and action research, while Finland considers the process of research and problem-solving as its reflective strategy for achieving student teachers' professionalization.

          The diverse interpretations of the reflective approach have led to every decision and policy in the teacher education system being categorized under the reflective teacher label. However, the interpretation of the reflective teacher is based on the outcomes and processes that must govern the components and elements of the curriculum and the structure of the teacher education system to ultimately lead to a reflective teacher and lifelong learner. Although the United States, Japan, and Finland differ in their implementation processes of the reflective teacher approach in their teacher education systems, they share a broad understanding of the reflective teacher and have founded their orientation—from program design to evaluation—on nurturing a reflective teacher. In contrast, according to research findings in Iran, the reflective teacher remains in the shadows and is practically limited to a portion of the practicum curriculum content. Concerns such as reflection at the instrumental level, failure to utilize reflective teaching as an overarching curriculum framework (rather than being confined solely to the practicum curriculum), inattention to preparing teacher educators, the absence of professional qualification certification, and reliance on end-of-term exams for evaluation have resulted in the stature of the reflective teacher in Iran's teacher education system being stunted, unable to produce the outcomes worthy of a teacher education system.

4. Conclusion

Classrooms are inherently fluid environments. Students change, and new experiences and perspectives of emerging generations come to the fore (Nurfaidah, 2018). Such a space requires a reflective teacher. The global movement in teaching and teacher education under the banner of reflection can be seen as a reaction against the view of teachers as technical experts who merely implement what others prescribe for the classroom. The present study aimed at a comparative analysis of the core value of the reflective teacher in the teacher education systems of Iran and the world. In this regard, components of the reflective teacher—including the meaning and level of reflection, reflective teaching, reflective tools, the role of teacher educators, and reflective assessment—in the teacher education systems of the studied countries were examined and compared.

           In the United States, the teacher education system is the responsibility of institutions that follow national processes and standards. Its relatively recent history, the presence of indigenous cultures alongside the subcultures of immigrants, and issues related to people of color have created a complex cultural and social climate, leading to diversity in the educational system and consequently in the teacher education system. Nevertheless, the utilization of reflective approaches forms the basis of its teacher education systems. Through reflection and deliberation, student teachers address challenges and issues, gaining the necessary preparation to enter classrooms. The level of reflection in the American teacher education system extends beyond the school level, is not confined to classroom and school processes, and remains sensitive to regional policies as well. The results of this comparison indicated that it is necessary to respond by adopting the reflective teacher approach with a critical interpretation. Reflective teaching, aligned with critical reflection, challenges frameworks, assumptions, documents, and laws, thereby expanding student teachers' thinking. Ethnographic research and case studies enrich the evaluative analysis of teacher education curricula and content, and, accompanied by a critical teacher educator proficient in reflective approaches, guide student teacher education around the value of the reflective teacher. The presence of self-assessment moderates student teachers' thinking toward the demands of the classroom and guarantees lifelong learning. What is evident regarding the reflective teacher in the field of American teacher education is the internal coherence of elements for nurturing a reflective teacher, such that threads of the reflective teacher are woven throughout the fabric of the teacher education system, with all elements serving to create a teacher of reflective stature, as emphasized in studies such as Feder & Cramer (2023), and Hernandez  & Endo (2017).

          Japan's teacher education system has been recognized for several decades as one of the most successful among leading countries in terms of training quality educational personnel. Japanese students often achieve successful results in international assessments such as the IEA's TIMSS and the OECD's PISA. At the beginning of the 21st century, Japan's teacher education system shifted from a curriculum based on theory and academic course delivery towards practical skills and classroom-based knowledge by employing the reflective teacher approach. The study results showed that the centrality of the reflective teacher lies within the radius of collaboration. This improvement cycle is completed through group analysis of teaching situations, critique of personal ideas, and pre- and post-teaching dialogues. The pinnacle of collaborative reflection and creating a synergistic atmosphere among teachers is the emphasis on teacher-led processes such as lesson study. A collaborative professional development culture, coupled with reflection, has transformed the role of teacher educators into clinical supervisors, such that this cycle is completed through collaborative observation and the use of peer feedback and referrals. In Japan's teacher education system, it is observed that the elements and components affecting the system serve the reflective teacher, whose flourishing depends on collaboration and interaction, aligning with research by Asaoka & Watanabe (2022), Kim et al (2021), and Burress & Peters (2015). Reconstructing schools as learning communities and creating collaborative learning to realize the motto "No teacher stops" ensures the dynamism and currency of the teacher education system.

          The study results indicated that the focal point of Finland's teacher education system is teaching-learning processes. Finnish teacher education has shifted its orientation towards research, and student teachers engage in reflective processes through problem-solving, inquiry, and research, continuously reflecting on their teaching and learning experiences. This includes examining teaching methods, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and thinking about how to impact students. Reviewing and analyzing real classroom cases helps Finnish teachers identify actual educational problems and examine possible solutions. The case analysis process helps them gain a deeper understanding of teaching challenges and find more effective strategies. In Finland, student teachers are considered researchers and innovators. They participate in research processes and update their teaching methods. This contributes to improving teaching quality and responding to changes in educational needs. The research-oriented process of the reflective teacher in Finland's teacher education system leads to the exploration of classroom challenges and critical issues through problem-solving and rethinking, with teachers' decisions being represented through the lens of reflection, free from personal opinions and biases. Based on the research results, it can be said that, in line with studies such as Jakhelln et al. (2021), Aspfors  & Eklund (2017), and Chung (2016), the reflective teacher in Finland is formed within the context of research. This context is filled with tools and processes that facilitate and reinforce reflection.

             Considering the results of the present study, it can be said that the meaning of the reflective teacher in global literature is significantly distant from its interpretation in Iran. Decision-making regarding content selection and its level can create challenges for novice teachers. In Iran's centralized education system, with its prescriptive curriculum, selection and decision-making in practice are not relevant, and the field of action for the reflective teacher is limited. In other countries, particularly multi-ethnic immigrant countries like the United States, interacting with students and issues such as gender, different races, and nationalities can make the decision-making process difficult and create tensions, whereas in Iran such issues are largely minimal. Expanding teaching activities towards collaboration and reflective approaches has cultural origins. Evidence shows that teachers in Iran create a boundary between their own classrooms and their colleagues, effectively keeping their classroom doors closed to other colleagues and the exchange of experiences (Rafiei & Abdollahi, 2023). The emergence of diversity in teacher recruitment methods, based on graduates of four-year university programs, one-year programs, contract teachers, clerical duty teachers, and soldier-teachers in recent years, has added to these tensions, isolating teachers in classroom cells and keeping them away from reflective and thoughtful actions. However, we can only meaningfully discuss reflection and the reflective teacher when the entire education system is built upon a foundation of reflection and deliberation. Confining teachers to a rigid and difficult path cannot foster reflection; in other words, the teacher's role must be redesigned, their real status and identity in the curriculum must be valued, and only then can we seek the reflective teacher. The curriculum of the teacher education system, in the form of the reflective teacher, requires the implementation of components and themes with a reflective and thoughtful interpretation. The banner of the reflective teacher must broadly cast its shadow over other elements of teacher education, adapting and moderating them according to the reflective approach.

          Therefore, the results of the study indicate that the cycle of producing a reflective teacher requires a suitable reflective approach, the establishment of reflective teaching, the expansion of reflective tools, supervision by reflective teacher educators, and finally reflective evaluation. However, Iran's teacher education system has been ineffective in most components and themes and lacks the capacity to create an optimal process. A review of the discussed issues and a comparison of the components of the reflective teacher in Iran's teacher education system and the studied countries shows that although the country's teacher education system claims "reflective teacher" as its fundamental value, in practice, this has not been realized. The results of the present study indicate that the teacher education curriculum needs to be aligned with the interpretation of the reflective teacher, such that each of its elements is positioned in support of fostering a reflective teacher. Considering the research findings, the following can be suggested to planners of the teacher education system in Iran:

·         The research findings indicate that the fundamental value of reflective teaching has become a mere slogan and artificial construct, in such a way that the characteristics of reflective teacher education are distant from and sometimes even contradictory to the ideal of a reflective teacher. A review of the Farhangian University and oversight by the Supreme Council of the Cultural Revolution is emphasized, which would lead to a redefinition of the solid concept of reflective teaching and specifying the relationship of each of its dimensions and components with teacher education. This redefinition can expand the scope of reflective teaching in the teacher education system and facilitate a reflective and contemplative identity for teachers.

·         As teacher educators are the cornerstone of implementing a reflective teacher education curriculum, it is imperative to first establish a conducive environment for their own reflective practices. Given that reflective teacher educators are instrumental in cultivating reflective student teachers, there is a pressing need to upgrade the professional competencies of teacher educators to align with the reflective teaching paradigm. To this end, it is recommended that in-service and continuing education programs be organized to enhance the reflective capabilities of teacher educators.

·         The cultivation of reflective teacher education components requires significant policy changes and a reorientation of the teacher education system towards a higher level of excellence. To achieve this, it is essential to facilitate reflective tools, create reflective environments, provide necessary infrastructure, implement reflective-based evaluations, and re-conceptualize content with a focus on reflective teaching and problem-solving. These changes necessitate a comprehensive overhaul of the design of Iran's teacher education system. Therefore, it is recommended that the overarching policy framework for teacher education be revised, with a reflective approach as its foundational value.