A Comparative Study of Higher Education Development in Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 PhD Student, Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Psychology & Educational Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran ,Iran

2 Assistant Professor, Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Psychology & Educational Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran ,Iran

3 Associate Professor , Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Psychology & Educational Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran ,Iran

Abstract

The present study has comparatively examined the indicators of higher education development in Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey. Afghanistan's higher education has made significant strides in increasing students' access, but in terms of quality - number of faculty members with PhD degree, infrastructure, training equipment, and number of articles and books - has deteriorated over the past three decades. In the field of the three functions of higher education system (production, transformation and dissemination of science), the Iran higher education system has experienced a high proportion of progress. Also, this system has moved away from the two policies of knowledge production and application of science in society and emphasized transfer of knowledge - in the form of a slight expansion of education and an increase in student admission. Turkey has achieved technological readiness and surpassed Afghanistan and Iran by slightly expanding educational structures, increasing share of technical-vocational education, improving enrollment rate of higher education skilled workforce, share of research & development costs, and improving overall indicators. The findings of this study are expected to help Afghan higher education planners to use positive experiences of higher education development in Iran and Turkey.

Highlights

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Keywords

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Article Title [Persian]

بررسی تطبیقی توسعه آموزش عالی در افغانستان، ایران و ترکیه

Authors [Persian]

  • خلیل احمد کانجو 1
  • محمود حقانی 2
  • محمود ابوالقاسمی 3
  • محمد قهرمانی 3
  • سید رضا نظری هاشمی 2
1 دانشجوی دکتری، گروه مدیریت آموزشی، دانشکده روانشناسی و علوم تربیتی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران
2 استادیار، گروه مدیریت آموزشی، دانشکده روانشناسی و علوم تربیتی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران
3 دانشیار، گروه مدیریت آموزشی، دانشکده روانشناسی و علوم تربیتی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران
Abstract [Persian]

پژوهش حاضر به بررسی تطبیقی روند توسعه آموزش عالی در افغانستان، ایران و ترکیه پرداخته است. نظام آموزش عالی افغانستان گام های مهمی برای افزایش دسترسی دانشجویان برداشته است ، اما از نظر کیفیت - تعداد اعضای هیأت علمی با مدرک دکترا، زیرساخت ها، تجهیزات آموزشی و تعداد مقالات و کتاب ها - در سه دهه گذشته با وضعیت بدتری روبرو بوده است. در زمینه کارکردهای سه گانه آموزش عالی (تولید، تحول و نشر علم)، نظام آموزش عالی ایران شاهد پیشرفت هایی بود . با این وجود این نظام از دو سیاست تولید دانش و کاربرد علم در جامعه دور شده و صرفا بر انتقال دانش - در قالب گسترش کمی آموزش و افزایش پذیرش دانشجو - تاکید کرده است. نظام آموزش عالی ترکیه با گسترش کمی ساختارهای آموزشی، افزایش سهم آموزش فنی-حرفه‌ای، بهبود نرخ ثبت‌نام نیروی کار ماهر در آموزش عالی، افزایش سهم هزینه‌های تحقیق و توسعه و بهبود شاخص‌های کلان به آمادگی فن‌آوری دست یافته و از افغانستان و ایران پیشی گرفته است. انتظار می رود یافته های این مطالعه به برنامه ریزان آموزش عالی افغانستان کمک کند تا از تجربیات مثبت توسعه آموزش عالی در ایران و ترکیه استفاده کنند.

Keywords [Persian]

  • توسعه
  • اشاعه علم
  • آموزش عالی
  • بسط کمی
  • سیاست های دانش
  1. Introduction

              Today, higher education is one of the most fundamental pillars of the rise towards globalization (Zhou et al., 2021). According to Li (2021), higher education has many goals in line with the principles and goals of national education. These goals include helping the country development, providing decent human resources, conducting scientific research and competing with other countries in the fields of knowledge, technology and research & development. Skilled manpower is the main indicator of progress and development of countries and one of the most important factors of their power (Chan, Brown, & Ludlow, 2014; Zhu, Peng, & Zhang, 2018). Higher education is important for countries for several reasons: An important step towards achieving higher levels of development and reaching a high level of human capital (Goksio et al., 2015). Nowadays, the world of higher education is faced with many challenges, among which increasing costs and lack of independence and academic freedom prevent universities from playing the role of education, research and service (Trejani, 2020). In recent decades, the higher education system has faced major problems such as globalization, virtual world, and development of technology & communications due to the increasing growth of technology, extensive social, economic & cultural changes, and meeting the needs of society (Goksu, & Goksu, 2015). Therefore, it is necessary to review the programs and structures of higher education systems. The main result of the dialogue between leaders and higher education professionals on the eve of the 21st century was that universities could not wait for better days while maintaining their traditional positions (UNESCO, 1998). Research on higher education not only points to problems, but is a strong reason for the importance of understanding its invaluable position. In some countries which trying to shift their traditional economy to a knowledge-based economy, the experience of changing the higher education system is linked to their development process (Azman, Sirat, & Ahmad, 2014). For the first time the cornerstone of Afghanistan's higher education was laid in 1911 by Turkish scientists and experts. In fact, the Turks are the founders of higher education in Afghanistan, while at present this system - due to its common cultural and linguistic aspects - is mainly influenced by the scientific products of Iran. We find that previous researchers have conducted valuable studies over the following years, although most of these researches focus on identifying and introducing the higher education system of selected countries. Some of previous research is as follow: Ashrafi, 2008; Azimi, & Balakarzai, 2020; Hayward, & Karim, 2019; Jafari, 2019; Noruzi Chakli & AliMohammadi, 2007; Safi, 2019; Tehranchi, 2008; and Toloi Eshkhalghi, 2009. Due to the lack of direct relationship between previous studies and present study, their findings were not mentioned in detail. The first part of this article includes a comparative analysis of the higher education system between the three selected countries and the last part includes conclusions and suggestions.

 

  1. Research Method

 

        This study was a descriptive-analytical research method based on George Z.F. Bereday's approach with description, interpretation, juxtaposition and comparison stages. To collect data, library method was used to review books, papers, documents, strategic plans and reports relevant to the selected countries. The most important usable references were documents and reports of authoritative organizations such as Strategic Plan of Ministries of Higher Education, Turkish Higher Education Council , Comprehensive Scientific Organization of Islamic Republic of Iran, Turkish Ministry of Higher Education homepage, Afghanistan Ministry of Higher Education , Ministry of Science, Research & Technology of Iran, Statistics Center of selected countries, UNESCO homepage, Iran Research and Planning Institution of Higher Education, and Afghanistan Higher Education Law.

 

  1. Findings

 

Based on the research goal and methodology, the findings are organized following the steps of John F. Bereday's comparative method.

 

  1. Description & Interpretation

 

  1. Afghanistan

 

           The evolution of higher education in Afghanistan can be traced back to the period of 1932 to the collapse of the Taliban regime (2001) and the formation of the interim government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2001) until now. The historical study of the presence of women in higher education in Afghanistan can also be divided into two different periods: The first period from the time of Amanullah Khan (1892- 1960) to the collapse of the Taliban regime and the second period from the formation of the interim government until now. In 1911, with the participation of the Turkish government, the first medical school was established and started working with eight teachers. Then, the Faculty of Law & Political Science started its activities as the second institute of higher education in 1938, following by the Faculty of Natural Sciences in 1942; and Faculty of Literature in 1944. Until 1946, these colleges were run directly by the Ministry of Education. The existence of these institutions caused the Afghan government to take a bigger step and lay the foundation of Kabul University in 1946. The establishment of Kabul University - as an independent unit - was one of the sensible and constructive steps that took the university out of the direct control of the Ministry of Education. During the 1940s, Kabul University was one of the most prestigious universities in the region and its various faculties had academic and scientific relations with European universities (Andishmand, 2010; Aturupane, Sofizada, & Shojo, 2013). In 1977, the Ministry of Higher Education - as the main cultural body - was established to integrate, expand and develop the country's higher education.

            The various governments of Afghanistan - during the rule of the Mujahideen and the Taliban - each with their own policies have somehow influenced social life. With the fall of Davood Khan Regim in 1973 and the establishment of the communist system, the ideological approach to education caused the development of higher education. Universities and higher education institutions were seen as a place to operate and organize the goals of the ruling regime and party ideology (Babury, & Hayward, 2013). The first political prisoners were also selected from educational centers and institutions, and more than a thousand professors left the universities. Ideological approach replaced academic and rational methods in Afghan higher education institutions, which was a fatal blow to the body of higher education in the country (Andishmand, 2010).

           The civil wars of the 1970s also disrupted the appearance order of the universities. Many universities were closed and war posed enormous political challenges for the country (Babury, & Hayward, 2014). The situation of higher education in Afghanistan deteriorated in the early 1990s, when there were 24,333 students. By 1995, the number of students was reduced to 17,370. This trend continued with the coming to power of the Taliban and by 2001 the number of students reached the lowest level and reached 7881 people. With the dominance of the Taliban fundamentalist group, Kabul University became a religious house school where only religious sciences were taught. As a result, the level of higher education coverage in Afghanistan has reached to lowest level in the world (Babury, & Hayward, 2014). According to research by the World Education Foundation (WEF), until 1980, only 11 percent of the country's population over the age of 25 had formal education, and less than one percent of them had completed higher education (Andishmand, 2010). The former Minister of Higher Education, Mohammad Sharif Fayez reported that on his first working day after the fall of the Taliban, the Ministry of Higher Education was in complete turmoil. He noted that there was no water or electricity at Kabul University, parts of it were damaged, none of the bathrooms were working, and no one seemed to know what to do (Babury, & Hayward, 2014). The collapse of Taliban in 2001 and formation of an interim government marked a turning point in Afghanistan's history. Under the new regime, higher education was revitalized. Higher education institutions and universities were opened to girls and boys, and despite many weaknesses - in terms of quality and quantity - much progress was made in rebuilding the higher education system (Andishmand, 2010; Jafari 2019). The Ministry of Higher Education has developed three strategic plans for development of higher education. These programs emphasized the two main elements of creating & increasing student enrollment capacity and provision of higher education infrastructure. In the late 2000s, there were 160 public and private universities and institutes of higher education in the country (Ministry of Higher Education of Afghanistan, 2009).

 

1.2 Goals of Higher Education

 

Improving the quality of public and private higher education system in Afghanistan based on complete scientific, administrative and financial independence to meet the need for specialists and human resources. This general objective includes the following sub-objectives:

 

  • Improvement of scientific and educational capacity of the faculty members of higher education institutions
  • Continuous development of the curriculum that meets the scientific, social, political and economic needs of the country
  • Establish and strengthen master and doctoral programs in eligible universities
  • Development of quality assurance program in higher education institutions in accordance with international standards
  • Development of infrastructure of universities and institutions of higher education
  • Standardization of university entrance exams in order to ensure transparency and compliance with international standards
  • Strengthening and developing scientific and research laboratories and educational hospitals in universities
  • Establish and develop electronic infrastructure and strengthen the role of Information Technology in improving the quality of education and good governance
  • Establishment of memorandums and agreements on scientific cooperation, exchange of faculty members and students between universities in the country, region and world levels
  • Providing suitable working conditions for faculty members for better scientific and research activities and financial support through the implementation of universities' financial independence programs
  • Necessary measures to improve the situation of students’ accommodation according to the economic situation of the State
  • Integration of higher education institutions unable to move forward independently
  • Process of institutionalizing English as the main educational Instrument
  • Continuous fight against all types of corruption
  • Serious attention to gender policies
  • Continuous review and amendment of laws, regulations and procedures of higher education (Afghanistan Ministry of Higher Education, 2005, Afghanistan Ministry of Higher Education, 2016).

 

           The content of the strategic plan of the Ministry of Higher Education of Afghanistan in all the mentioned goals refers to three issues namely balanced development, playing a role in solving society's problems and possibility of equitable access to education. It can be said that Afghanistan's tumultuous history and the instability of the political situation - and the turmoil caused by civil and foreign wars - have had a significant negative impact on the goals of the country's higher education system (Afghanistan Ministry of Higher Education, 2005).

 

1-3. Afghanistan Higher Education Perspectives

 

            Develop and replace higher education institutions with the model of local colleges in the United States

Classification of institutions into three groups:

 

  • First: Comprehensive research universities for the elite
  • Second : Other universities and colleges
  • Third: Higher education institutions with short-term degree courses

 

            In this perspective, the impact of the US higher education system on the development of higher education is evident as they seek to replace higher education institutions with the model of local US colleges (Azimi & Balakarzi, 2020).

 

  1. Turkey

 

2-1. Evolution of Turkish higher education

 

           Establishment of the first new higher education institutions in Turkey began during the Ottoman reforms influenced by relations with Europe. These reforms began during the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid I (1725-1789) and laid the foundations for the first new higher education centers. The new education was formalized with the establishment of the Academy of Arts in 1863. After the formation of the Republic of Turkey, the country needed to establish new higher education centers in the direction of modernization and westernization of society. The Dar al-Fonun was reorganized after the establishment of the republic in 1933 - during the Ataturk Revolution - and was renamed Istanbul University, which is the first university in Turkey. Ataturk's educational policy was based on the decentralization of higher education and establishment of universities in different parts of the country. After the end of World War II in 1945, the departure of German professors from Turkey caused stagnation in university research. Also, the government ideology and secular reforms made the local combination of the Anglo-American and European academic model the basis of modern higher education in Turkey. This model was developed during the four decades of 1951 - 1981(Çetinsaya, 2014).

 

           During these four decades, many legal events took place for Turkish higher education. The most important goal of universities was to teach national values. In order to achieve this goal the "University Performance Review Council" was established. The Higher Education Authority (Yök) - as the coordinating body - was also set up to address disagreements between universities and the government over the admission of students. The Inter-University Council (as the closest advisory body to the Yök) was also composed of university presidents and two faculty members from two universities. Higher education was covered by Yök to avoid any type of political interference. One of the positive points of Yök has been the integration of higher education with the independence of universities in Turkey. Yök made tuition one of the financial resources of public universities and specified the conditions for the establishment of higher non-profit and private institutions. Thus, healthy competition between public and private universities has led to the growth of numerous Turkish academic disciplines in recent years. In 2019, there were 183 universities and academies in Turkey with 4764207 students. In the last five years, the number of foreign students in Turkey has increased by 59%. Istanbul and Middle East Technical universities have accepted the most foreign students (Higher Education Organization, 2019). Macro goals of Turkish higher education are:

 

  • Training creative, alert and united people with a broad and scientific view of the world.
  • Introducing Turkey as a privileged and important country in the modern world.
  • Guide and educate students based on interests and skills to support national development and respond to national needs.
  • Educate citizens with the power of scientific and independent thought with a global perspective and respect for human rights
  • Provide research for the advancement of science & technology
  • Provide scientific education in different stages
  • Analyze and identify general challenges and provide solutions to all issues in order to develop and deepen science
  • Attention to national issues with cooperation of the government and presenting its results
  • Disseminate useful knowledge for public opinion
  • Provide extensive educational services
  • Implementing programs to promote social culture in order to improve level of welfare and comfort of society and in line with modern civilization
  • Conducting high-level studies and research to produce and disseminate scientific data and support national development
  • Becoming a permanent and effective member of the world of science with the cooperation of foreign and domestic institutions
  • Participating in modern global development (YOK, 2021).

 

           Turkey's macro goals for higher education has a variety of issues including globalization, development of justice in access to education, solving the problems and needs of society, and attention to human rights. In fact, through avoiding elitism (attention to all members of society instead of elites), Turkish higher education is trying to prepare the potential of the whole society to achieve a larger goal of contribute to global development and progress (YOK, 2021).

 

2-2 Turkish Higher Education Perspectives

 

  • Increasing the number and diversity of higher education institutions through two groups of research universities and regional universities
  • Increase national and international cooperation
  • Student mobility and ability to employ graduates
  • Increase quality human resources
  • Raising people with social commitment and believing in national, moral and human values
  • Use of new technologies and communication with it

 

 

  1. Iran

 

3.1. Evolution of higher education

 

             The evolution of scientific institutions in Iran has been described and analyzed in seven periods. The period of procrastination, as the first period has lasted for several centuries. In the 19th century, the period of preparation for modern science education was begun (Yamani Dozi Sorghabi, 2008). The third period was period of early development, which was formed during the constitutional era and during the passage of Iran from the 19th to the 20th century. The establishment of the university in the fourth period was made possible thanks to the modernization movement, although the social aspect of this establishment was weak. Increase in the number of universities and expansion of higher education under the modernization project progressed during the fifth period. In the 1950s, hasty steps were taken to develop the quality of universities, but coinciding with the Islamic Revolution, the plan fell through. Hence, the sixth period has been mentioned as the period of late and unsuccessful development of higher education in Iran. In the seventh period, the challenge of following higher education from the model of state modernization to state Islamization was formed (Farasatkhah, (2008; Farasatkhah & Asgharzadeh, 2018).

          In a modern form, university has been established in Iran for more than one hundred years. Higher education in Iran began with the establishment of Nezamiyeh Schools during the Seljuk period in the cities of Baghdad, Neishabour, Herat and Isfahan. In Maragheh, Khajeh Nasir al-Din Tusi also established a large research institute and observatory (Ahmadpour, & Mohammad Naebi, 2020). Using modern educational experiences of Russia and Ottoman Empires, Dār ul-Funun (House of Techniques) was established in 1287. The idea of ​​establishing Dār ul-Funun was made by thought and decision of the Prime Minister of Iran, Amir Kabir, who recognized the need to acquire technology and recognized the establishment of the Dar al-Fonun as necessary and inevitable step. After that, with the hard work of people like Samuel Martin Jordan (1871-1952), pre-university institutions developed and prospered. With the approval of the law on the establishment of the university in 1313, the University of Tehran was established as the center of gravity of higher education in Iran. Thus, the first universities in Iran gradually began to operate (Khalkhali & Taqdiri, 2012).

            Iranian women were also admitted to the university for the first time in 1937 (Ghanaeerad, & Khosro Khavar, 2005). At the same time, there was a need to supervise the work of the university, with the establishment of the Ministry of Science & Higher Education in 1967 and the subsequent formation of the Central Education Council in 1969, the first step was taken to exercise central supervision over higher education. The dramatic growth of the economy in the 1950s and rise in oil revenues increased higher education share of GDP from 0.81 to 1.08.Moreover, the number of higher education institutions increased from 87 (8 universities) in 1973 to 155 (13 universities) in 1975. From 1962 to 1979, nine universities - and in total 17 universities were established before victory of the Islamic Revolution in Iran (Entazari, 2008). After the victory of the Islamic Revolution in 1979 - and formation of the High Council for Culture & Higher Education - a major transformation in university affairs was happened under name of Cultural Revolution. Initially, universities were closed for three years because of political decisions. In 1985, the Ministry of Health and Medical Education was established. The Ministry of Culture and Higher Education was also renamed in 2000 as Ministry of Science, Research & Technology. In addition, the ministry was assigned the task of planning, supporting, monitoring, evaluation and formulating strategic policies and priorities in the fields of research and technology (Ahmadpour, & Mohammad Naebi, 2020; Khademi Kalehlu, & Arefi, 2021). In order to analyze in depth and comprehensive methods and according to the research and documents, the following classification was considered.  The foundations of university formation in Iran and contemporary higher education in general can be divided into the following stages:

 

  1. Before the Islamic Revolution (1934-1978): Establishment of Universities based on Western Models. It is divided into three periods:

 

  • First Period: Preparation for the Emergence of Higher Education in Iran (1908-1934)
  • Second Period: Formation of University (1934 - 1961)
  • Third Period: Expansion of Universities (1961-1979)

 

  1. After victory of Islamic Revolution in 1979: The period is divided into four distinct periods:

 

  • First Period: A period of change with the view of the Cultural Revolution in universities (1979-1988)
  • Second Period: Quantitative Expansion (1368-1376)
  • Third Period: Quantitative Development Period and Design of Quality and Structural Reform (1997-2005)
  • Fourth Period: Back to centralized structure and comprehensive spread of higher education (2006- 2012) (Farasatkhah, 2010; Hajrati, 2016).

 

 

3.2 Goals of Higher Education

 

  • Gaining the first rank of science and technology in the Islamic world and the world's leading scientific place
  • Establishment of a Knowledge Society for the Promotion of Scientific Authority in the World
  • Developing general and specialized education
  • Development of new science and technology and its dissemination and application in different institutions
  • Increase the share of GDP based on national IT and knowledge to over 50%
  • Promoting Persian Language in International Scientific Languages
  • Promoting science and technology in the Islamic world
  • Revival of Iran's Central and Historical Position in Islamic Culture and Civilization
  • Cooperation with Accredited Scientific Centers (Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution, 2010)

 

          In Iran, major goals revolve around the development of science and technology worldwide such as gaining the first position in science and technology in the Islamic world and scientific authority in the world (Qaron, 2002). These goals are in line with the main goals of the Islamic Republic of Iran - which claims to be the leader of the Islamic world in the Middle East and rest of the world. These goals do not explicitly refer to solving problems or meeting the needs of society or paying attention to human values ​​in education. The micro-goals of Iran's higher education system have a high focus on guiding students and global indicators, and in addition, it has explicitly identified education and research in new fields and sciences for greater focus.

 

3-3 Perspectives of Higher Education

 

  • Revival of culture and establishment of a new Islamic-Iranian civilization for national progress
  • Spread of justice in the world
  • A country with righteous, educated, healthy people according to rule of Islam and Islamic revolution
  • Training scientists to be top in the world
  • Produce and develop science & technology and innovation and use its benefits
  • Leading the frontiers of knowledge and technology with scientific authority in the world
  • Development of science and technology and leadership in world science and technology until 2025 is also one of the most important goals of higher education in Iran (Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution, 2010).

 

  1. Juxtaposition

 

    Juxtaposition of higher education’s historical events will be an important approach to understanding the situation of each of the countries of Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey in specific time periods. It can also be seen in which years the higher education of the three countries has undergone changes; did the ups and downs depend on simultaneous historical events - such as global and international problems - or did they stem from domestic and national problems? The important events of higher education of the three countries (orientation or modification of the path of higher education) can be summarized in Table 1.

 

Table 1: Juxtaposition of higher education development in Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey

Afghanistan

Iran

Turkey

Initial foundation ( 1931-1950)

·     Establishment of the first Faculty of Medical Sciences and Law & Political Sciences

·     Establishment of Faculty of Natural Sciences and Faculty of Literature

·     University administration by the Ministry of Education

·     Establishment of the first university of Afghanistan: Kabul University

Initial foundation ( 1908)

·   Establishment of Dar al-Funun school

·   Establishment of the Ministry of Science

Initial foundation ( 1871)

·    The period of Sultan Abdul Hamid

·    Establishment of the first new higher schools as a result of dealings with Europe, such as the medical school and the music school

Decade of progress ( 1951-1961)

·     Presence of women in higher education

·     Establishment of Faculty of Theology, Agriculture and Engineering

·     Establishment of the Ministry of Higher Education and University Independence

·     Establishment of the Faculty of Economics, Pharmacy and Veterinary Medicine

Quantitative growth of higher education ( 1921- 1979)

·   The first period of Pahlavi and higher schools affiliated to the government

·   Formation of the Supreme Council of Education

·   Establishing a school of agriculture, trade and veterinary medicine

·   University Establishment Law and University of Tehran

·   The first presence of Iranian women in higher education

·   Independence of the university budget

·   Establishment of the University of Tabriz, Isfahan and Shiraz

·   The start of the first seven-year construction program

·   The coup d'état of 1332 and the absolute dictatorship of the Shah

·   Establishment of Jundishapur University

·   Establishment of Tehran Polytechnic University

·   Establishment of Mashhad, Isfahan and Shahid Beheshti University

Quantitative growth of higher education ( 1870- 1950)

·    Establishment of the Faculty of Management and Law

·    The establishment of Marmara University and the dissolution of Dar al-Funun

·    The first appearance of women in higher education

·    Establishment of the first university: Istanbul University

·    Establishment of Ankara University and Yildiz Technical School

·    Increasing the number of higher education centers up to 17

·    Increasing the number of professors and students

·    Establishment of Faculty of Science and Technical University of Turkey

·    The departure of German professors from Turkey

·    Codification of academic law

Growing trend (1960-1990)

·     Establishment of other faculties in Kabul University

·     Establishment of universities in other cities

·     Emergence of communist governments and university affiliation to political parties

Changes affected by the Islamic Revolution ( 1979-1988)

·   Formation of the Revolutionary Council and Cultural Revolution Headquarters

·   Formation of the Ministry of Culture and Higher Education

·   Closing universities for two years

·   Establishment of Azad University and Payam Noor

·   102 universities and institutes of higher education

Formation of Atatürk's government (1960)

·    Independence of universities

·    Selection of responsible and responsive leaders

·    The establishment of the Republic of Turkey - Atatürk

·    Establishment of Karadeniz, Aegean, Middle East and Ataturk University

Civil war (1990-2000)

 

·     Closure of universities and classes

·     Taliban came to power

·     Reducing the number of students from 24,000 to 8,000

Modification of structures ( 1995-2005)

 

·   First and second development plans

·   The third development plan

·   Establishment of 270 universities and higher education institutes

·   Establishment of 297 universities and institutes of higher education

·   Establishment of a virtual university

Institutionalization of higher education ( 1960-1980)

·    Administrative and scientific independence of the university

·    Independence of Hajat Tepe Medical School

·    Changing the name of Robert College to Baghazaichi University

·    Determining the most important goal of the university: teaching national values

·    Establishment of the University and the Inter-University Council

Collapse of Taliban and quantitative and qualitative growth(2000-2020)

·     Improving the quality of the education system

·     Increase of female faculty members up to 14%

·     Increasing the number of students and increasing the percentage of female students

·     Establishment of 131 universities and private higher education institutes

·     Increasing the number of universities from 19 to 39

Comprehensive expansion of higher education ( 1990- 2022)

 

·   Research-oriented universities

Modification of structures ( 1995-2006)

 

·    Start of Anatolian University distance learning

·    Establishing eight new universities and reaching the number of universities to 27

·    The beginning of the establishment of private universities named Waqf

·    Yildiz Technical University started working

·    59% increase of foreign students in Turkey

·    There are 183 universities and academies

·    4764207 students studying

·    854, 288, 1 medical student

 

 

           According to “Higher Education Strategic Plan of Afghanistan Document”, the higher education goals are under three headings of values, mission and goals (Afghanistan Ministry of Higher Education, 2005).  The “comprehensive document of the scientific map of Iran” described higher education goals with two titles of macro goals and sectorial goals and the “Strategic Plan of the Higher Education Council” of Turkey indicated these goals with the title of educational goals and general goals (Norshahi, 2012).

 

 

 

Table 2: Main goals of higher education system of Afghanistan, Iran & Turkey

Afghanistan

Iran

Turkey

·          Improving the quality of HE system based on the complete independence of educational institutions

·          Increasing the scientific capacity of faculty members

·          Curriculum development tailored to national needs

·          Create and strengthen master's and doctoral programs

·          Develop a quality assurance program

·          Development of infrastructure

·          Standardization of entrance exams with international standards

·          Strengthen and develop laboratories and hospitals

·          Development of electronic infrastructure and information technology

·          Contracts for scientific cooperation, exchange of faculty and students with other countries of the world

·          Provide better working conditions for faculty members

·          Necessary measures to improve the living conditions

·          Continuous fight against corruption

·          Serious attention to acceptance and coordination with gender policies

·          Review and amend higher education laws

·          Identify new sources of revenue

·          Gradual integration of higher education institutions

·       Acquiring first place of science and technology in the Islamic world and a prominent world scientific position

·       Establishing a community of scholars to gain scientific authority in the world

·       Expansion of general and specialized education

·       Development of new sciences and technologies and its dissemination and application in various institutions

·       Increasing the share of production based on domestic knowledge and technology to more than 50% of GDP

·       Promotion of Persian language among international scientific languages

·       Promotion of science and technology in the Islamic world

·       Revival of the pivotal and historical position of Iran in Islamic culture and civilization

·       Cooperation with world-renowned scientific centers

·       Training creative, cleaver and united people with a scientific view about world

·       Introducing Turkey as a privileged and important country in the modern world

·       Guide and educate students based on interests and skills to support development and national needs

·       Educate citizens with the power of scientific and independent thinking with world opinion and respect for human rights

·       Provide research for the advancement of science and technology

·       Provide scientific education at different stages of life

·       Analyze and identify public affairs and provide solutions to problems in order to develop and deepen science

·       Attention to national issues with the cooperation of the government

·       Disseminate useful knowledge for public opinion

·       Provide extensive educational services

·       Implementing programs to promote social culture in order to improve the welfare of society and in line with modern civilization

·       Conducting high-level studies and research to produce and disseminate scientific data and support national development

·       Becoming a permanent and effective member of the world of science with cooperation of foreign and domestic institutions

·       Participate in the development of modernization and globalization

 

Table 3: Sub-goals of higher education system of Afghanistan, Iran & Turkey

Turkey

Iran

Afghanistan

·          Increase students' economic wealth by providing financial resources needed for higher education and providing available grants and loans to students

·          Forming the private sector of higher education to create a quality assurance system and change the current centralized examination system for entering universities

·          Restructure the structure and role of the Higher Education Council to fulfill the responsibility of setting standards, coordinating and planning

·          Achieving financial, managerial and executive independence of higher education institutions with transparency, accountability and diversity in missions and goals

§  Public access to knowledge and eradication of illiteracy

§  Full coverage of general education

§  Creating a suitable educational system to guide students to:

§  3.1. Recognize responsibilities and duties towards God, self and society

§  3.2. Strengthen the power of thought and reasoning

§  3.3. Get ready to enter independent living

§  3.4. Responsible and effective presence in the community

§  3.5. Nurturing job talent and building a career future

§  3.6. Cultivation of scientific talents for specialized courses

§  Achieving knowledge and skills of the workforce in accordance with global standards and responding to needs of society and labor market

§  Achieving the first rank of universities in the Islamic world and a privileged position in the world

§  Creating the desired ratio of graduate students to all students

§  Promoting the desired level of science production in the humanities

§  Establishing the country's position in science and technology in the field of oil and gas, information technology and biotechnology

§  Acquire knowledge of design and construction of nuclear power plants, molten energy, technology for sending humans into space, and knowledge of design, construction and launch of satellites into Earth orbit

·          Adherence to national and Islamic values

·          Balanced development

·          Possibility of fair and competitive access to quality higher education in accordance with the needs of labor market inside and outside the country

·          Observing educational justice for equal access to higher education for all citizens of the country.

·          Increase access to higher education, especially for women in war-torn and disadvantaged areas

·          Participate to solve all problems

·          Training skilled, competent and committed scientists to serve the society

·          Establish a responsive and quality higher education system

·          Launching targeted scientific research and providing effective services to meet needs

·          Continuous attention to the quality of services and programs

·          Observe transparency and accountability in promoting activities

·          Develop and strengthen healthy and effective leadership and management

·          Promoting good morals, honesty, patriotism, culture of struggle against violence and corruption

·          Gaining scientific and financial independence of higher education institutions

·          Focus on quality improvement

 

 

           In the higher education program of all three countries, there are clauses about the future prospects of the higher education system, which are listed in Table 4.

 

Table 4: Higher Education Perspectives for Afghanistan, Iran & Turkey

Afghanistan

Iran

Turkey

·          Develop and replace higher education institutions with the local colleges model in the United States

·          Classification of institutions into three groups

·          Comprehensive research universities for the elite

·          Other universities and colleges

·          Higher education institutions with short-term courses and diplomas *

·          Revival of modern Iranian/ Islamic culture and civilization

·          Spread of justice in the world

·          A country with competent, educated and healthy people

·          Cultivating scientists with a privileged position among the scientists of the world

·          Ability in production, development of science and technology and innovation

·          Leading in science and technology and gaining scientific authority in the world

·          Increasing the number and diversity of higher education institutions

·          Universities by Diversity: Research Universities and Regional Universities

·          National and international cooperation

·          Student mobility and the ability to employ graduates

·          Increase quality human resources

·          Cultivation of useful people for the society who believe in national, moral and human values

·          Use of new technologies

·          Activities and research related to the advancement of technology and innovation

·          Information production and technology

·          Adaptation and implementation of quality scientific activities

·          Encourage research processes

·          Dissemination of scientific information

·          Gradual transformation of higher education institutions as prominent members of the world of science

 

  1. Comparison

 

           The method of comparative research is based on the idea that by determining the similarities and differences, it is better to identify the strengths and weaknesses or advantages and disadvantages of phenomena in a scientific process and find objective and practical guidance for growth, improvement and excellence. One of the common historical events for all three countries is the First and Second World Wars, each of which affected the development of higher education. Coinciding with World War I, the first colleges were established in Iran and Turkey. World War II led to a change in the approach of universities from the French method in Iran and Afghanistan and German approach in Turkey to the U.S. style. The independence of universities also took place after World War II. In addition, different historical events in all three countries have included the change of governments and reform in higher education system. A comparison of macro goals shows that the emphasis of Afghanistan's higher education system - compared to Iran and Turkey - is more limited and national, while Iran's goals are global and Turkey's goals include both national and global dimensions. In fact, Turkish higher education system seeks to increase the potential of the whole of society by moving away from elitism (focusing on the whole society instead of the elite) and progressing rapidly to achieve larger goals - such as participating in modern and global development.

 

  1. Conclusion

 

          The present article compares development of higher education in Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey. The results showed that higher education in Afghanistan grew well in the early years, but with the rise of the Taliban, Kabul University became a religious school and the presence of women in higher education institutes was reduced to zero. In the years since the fall of the Taliban regime, much progress has been made in rebuilding the higher education system. The programs focused on the two main elements of capacity building and provision of higher education infrastructure. The re-emergence of the Taliban in Afghanistan marks a return to the past and a halt to the development of higher education. In 1934, the first university in Iran was established and Iran’s growth in 1970s led to the increase in the number of universities. After the victory of the Islamic Revolution (formation of the Supreme Council of Culture and Higher Education) and the Cultural Revolution, higher education centers were closed for three years. The reopening of universities was accompanied by quantitative development of higher education. After the formation of the Republic of Turkey, the country embarked on the path of modernization. The Dar al-Fonun was restructured during the Ataturk period and renamed as “Istanbul University”. The ideology of the national government and secular reforms led to the spread of a local mix of Anglo-American and European academic paradigms in Turkey. At the same time, there was relatively good international interaction between universities and public and private sectors. The establishment of the college in its current form in Iran and Turkey began in 1915 and in Afghanistan - with a 20-year delay -. The first presence of women in higher education was first in 1923 in Turkey, then in 1937 in Iran and finally in 1948 in Afghanistan. Private universities appeared in Iran in 1959, in Turkey in 1984 and in Afghanistan since 2007. Simultaneously with the First World War, the first colleges were established in Iran and Turkey. World War II led to a change in the approach of universities from the French method in Iran and Afghanistan and German style in Turkey to the American method. The independence of universities also took place after World War II. Many political changes in Afghanistan have prevented higher education from progressing smoothly, while Turkey has sought to launch distance education and establish private universities to meet the high social demand for higher education. In terms of patterns of higher education development, common approaches in all three countries revolve around issues such as human manpower, responding to social demand for higher education, role of State-nation and in education, globalization, feminism, and educational expansion. Afghanistan is focusing on changing its management structure and training programs, while the development plans of Iran and Turkey are on globalization, promotion of human capital and interaction with society and industry.

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